Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing is a key contributor to more than 90% of global fisheries stocks being fully exploited, overexploited or depleted, according to the UN, impacting regions most affected by climate change. China is consistently ranked at number one in the global list of 152 countries practicing IUU fishing”. This practice also accounts for one-fifth of the global fisheries catches, worth up to $23.5bn annually, the third most lucrative natural resource crime after timber and mining. For example, in illegal Asian markets, a kilogram of Totoaba fish bladder can fetch up to $50,000, surpassing the value of a kilogram of cocaine.

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IUU fishing refers to fishing activities that violate national or international laws, are not reported to relevant authorities, or occur in areas where there is no effective management or regulation.  This type of fishing poses significant challenges to sustainable fisheries management, leading to overfishing, depletion of fish stocks, and damage to marine ecosystems. The lack of transparency and accountability in IUU fishing operations makes it difficult for governments to monitor and manage marine resources effectively. The persistent and widespread occurrence of IUUF stems from its highly profitable, low-risk, and high-return dynamics. 

The Indo-Pacific spans from the eastern shores of Africa to the western coasts of the Americas, encompassing 60% of the world’s population and two-thirds of the global economic output.  It is a strategic maritime theatre linking the Indian and Pacific Oceans, vital for international trade routes, marine resources (including hydrocarbons and rare earth metals), and geopolitical influence. Unlike the Asia-Pacific, which focuses on economic integration through frameworks like APEC and RCEP, the Indo-Pacific concept incorporates broader security and geopolitical dimensions, reflecting shifting power dynamics and maritime competition. This region, known for its rich marine biodiversity and strategic importance, faces a profound threat from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities, particularly those attributed to China's distant-water fishing fleet. 

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However, IUU fishing is not limited to the Indo-Pacific. The Arctic is facing increased illegal fishing due to warming waters, while West Africa loses an estimated $2.3 billion annually to illicit fishing practices. In Latin America, foreign fleets, primarily from China, Russia, and Korea, have decimated local fish stocks, forcing artisanal fishers out of business. The crisis is truly global, requiring international collaboration beyond regional enforcement. This issue not only jeopardises food security but also undermines national sovereignty and exacerbates geopolitical tensions. In this article, we will delve into the complexities of IUU fishing, its impact on regional stability, and the measures being taken to address this pressing concern.

Legal Fishing  vs  IUU Fishing 

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Legal fishing operates under national or international regulations, requiring permits, adherence to catch limits, and transparent reporting. By contrast, IUU (Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated) fishing includes:

●    Illegal activities. Fishing without permits, in prohibited zones, or using banned gear.
●    Unreported catches. Failure to log catches accurately to authorities or regional management bodies.
●    Unregulated operations. Exploiting gaps in governance, such as fishing in international waters beyond oversight.

IUU fishing destabilises marine ecosystems, drains billions from global economies, and disproportionately harms developing nations reliant on fisheries. As noted by Atsushi Sunami, President of the Sasakawa Peace Foundation, "IUU fishing harms coastal communities, impacts food security, undermines sustainable fisheries, and costs the global economy $26-$50 billion every year”. 

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China's Role in IUU Fishing

China is the world's largest contributor to IUU fishing, with its distant-water fishing fleet operating in every ocean. The sheer scale of China's fishing operations, combined with its extensive subsidies to the fishing industry, has enabled its fleets to dominate global fisheries. However, these subsidies have been criticised for promoting unsustainable fishing practices and encouraging the exploitation of resources in other countries' exclusive economic zones (EEZs).

China's involvement in IUU fishing is not limited to economic interests; it also serves geopolitical purposes. The presence of Chinese fishing vessels in disputed waters, such as the South China Sea, is often used to assert sovereignty claims and challenge the territorial rights of other nations. This has led to tensions with neighbouring countries and raised concerns about the militarisation of fishing activities. With this, it is pertinent to understand the Chinese Maritime Militia and their intention of becoming a hybrid force for global dominance.

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Historical Expansion and Strategic Evolution    

China’s distant-water fishing fleet, now numbering over 17,000 vessels, emerged after depleting domestic fish stocks in the early 2000s. Backed by $7 billion in annual subsidies, this fleet operates as a civilian-military hybrid force:-

●    Maritime Militia: Vessels equipped with satellite systems and coordinated by state actors to assert territorial claims, particularly in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.
●    Gray-Zone Tactics: By disabling tracking systems (“going dark”), these ships encroach on foreign EEZs, masquerading as civilian operations while advancing Beijing’s geopolitical interests.

Global Reach and Resource Exploitation 

●    In the Indian Ocean, Chinese fleets target waters off Somalia, Kenya, and Madagascar, exploiting weak enforcement capabilities.
●    In Latin America and the Pacific, squid fleets outcompete local fishers, harvesting more in a week than regional boats do annually.
●    Militia vessels have clashed with Philippine, Vietnamese, and Indonesian coastguards, reinforcing China’s claims to disputed territories like Scarborough Shoal.

Chinese IUU fishing operations have had a detrimental impact extending far beyond the ocean, contributing to economic instability and food insecurity. As highlighted in a report by the American Security Project, "IUU fishing has decimated domestic fishing industries and forced local fishermen to seek out other means of employment”. Beyond China, Russia and North Korea also engage in extensive IUU fishing. North Korean “ghost ships” often wash ashore in Japan, filled with dead fishermen who ventured dangerously far due to overfished home waters. Russian fleets are known for illegal poaching in Arctic waters, highlighting IUU fishing’s diverse perpetrators.

Impacts of IUU Fishing: A Multifaceted Crisis 

Ecological Collapse 

●    Overfishing. As per some WWF’s 2024 Living Planet report, there has been more than a 50% decline in global marine populations since 1970, pushing species like tuna and squid toward collapse.
●    Habitat Destruction. Bottom trawling and illegal gear devastate coral reefs and seabed ecosystems.

Economic and Food Security Threats 

●    Loss of Livelihoods. Coastal states lose $10–$20 billion yearly to IUU fishing, crippling communities dependent on artisanal fisheries.
●    Protein Shortages. Over 3 billion people rely on seafood as a primary protein source; IUU-driven stock depletion risks famine in vulnerable regions like Southeast Asia and West Africa.

Geopolitical Instability 

●    Sovereignty Violations. China’s militia violates the EEZs of 20+ nations, using fishing as a pretext to militarise disputed waters (e.g., Spratly Islands).
●    Transnational Crime. IUU networks are linked to trafficking, forced labor, and money laundering, with Chinese fleets often implicated.

As noted by Indonesian President Joko Widodo, IUU fishing is the most serious internal security threat, prompting him to implement a "sink the boat" policy against illegal trawlers. This highlights the urgency with which nations are addressing IUU fishing to protect their sovereignty and resources.

The Path Forward

Mitigating the Crisis is only possible with a call for urgent measures to improve transparency in the fisheries sector to fight IUU fishing,  which should include:

1.    Public beneficial ownership registration should be required when requesting a fishing licence, fishing authorisation, joint ventures or registration to their flag.
2.    Fisheries should be included as an extractive industry in key initiatives, including the Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI) and other global and regional initiatives concerning regulation and transparency of extractive industries.
3.    Supply chain due diligence requirements should be extended across supply chains and to IUU fishing and other fisheries-related crimes as part of wider due diligence requirements on products natural resource crimes.
4.    Governments should publish an up-to-date list of IUU vessels, allowing the use of fines and sanctions on the companies and real owners. This list should also be collated internationally under IMO-FAO auspices.
5.    Improve monitoring capacity by coastal state governments by supporting their coast guards, including with the help of external assistance, requiring automatic vessel monitoring and vessel Automatic Identification Systems to be enforced.
6.    Boost Regional Cooperation by empowering ASEAN and Indian Ocean nations towards conducting joint patrols, seizures and intelligence sharing.
7.    Deployment of unmanned assets for surveillance across IOR, this could be done by USVs and UAVs and have transparent data sharing for participating nations. There are a couple of Indian Companies, like Sagar Defence and Tardid Technologies, that are testing IMO level 4 autonomy for AI-based ISR operations. These could be a cost-effective 24*7 solution.
8.    Leverage Global Agreements: The Port State Measures Agreement (PSMA), INTERPOL, and FAO-led initiatives should be strengthened to close loopholes that allow illegal operators to sell illicit catches in global markets.

Last Word

The threat posed by Chinese IUU fishing activities in the Indo-Pacific and beyond is multifaceted, impacting not only food security but also national sovereignty and regional stability. Addressing this issue requires a concerted effort from the international community, including enhanced cooperation, stricter enforcement of maritime laws, and the elimination of harmful subsidies. As global demand for seafood continues to rise, it is imperative to ensure that fisheries are managed sustainably to protect both the environment and the livelihoods of millions of people worldwide. China’s IUU fishing strategy is not merely an environmental or economic issue it is a calculated instrument of power projection. Without urgent multilateral action, the Indo-Pacific’s ecological and geopolitical fabric risks irreversible damage, signalling a future where maritime dominance supersedes global sustainability.

(Cdr Rahul Verma (Retd), is a doctoral research scholar who boasts of 21 years as a Naval Aviator with diverse aircraft experience. Seaking Pilot, RPAS Flying Instructor, and more, his core competencies span Product and Innovation Management, Aerospace Law, Maritime Law, Drone Law, and Flight Safety. The author is an Emerging Technology and Prioritization Scout for a leading Indian Multi National Corporation, focusing on advancing force modernisation through innovative technological applications and operational concepts. Holding an MBA and Professional certificates from institutions like Olin Business School, Takshashila, NALSAR, Axelos and IIFT, he's passionate about contributing to aviation, unmanned technology, and policy discussions. Through writing for various platforms, he aims to leverage his domain knowledge to propel unmanned and autonomous systems and create value for Atamannirbhar Bharat and the Indian Aviation industry.)