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What is Pakistan two nation theory and is it a success or a failure? Pakistan Army Chief Gen Asim Munir's re-invocation of the two-nation theory in a recent speech was mostly about reminding overseas Pakistanis on the idea that led to the creation of the Muslim nation. But the theory is fraught with controversy, and its implementation is often linked with bloody events and ongoing debate.
Here is a look at the two-nation theory that birthed Pakistan and its aftermath in the past seven decades.
What is the two-nation theory?
In its most simplified form, the two-nation theory at the dawn of the Independence of the Indian subcontinent from British colonial rule posited that Hindus and Muslims constitute two separate nations. Advocates and supporters of the two-nation theory argued that Hindus and Muslims happened to live side by side in the Indian subcontinent but are, in reality, different in many ways, and should be moved to two geographically separate regions in which they could live and thrive.
While Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founding father of Pakistan, is prominently associated with the two-nation theory, it was not entirely his idea. Its origins are traced to the thoughts, words and speeches of various Muslim scholars, philosophers and politicians of the British era, such as Syed Ahmed Khan, Justice Abdur Rahim, and Muhammad Iqbal among others.
The seeds of two-nation theory
The seeds of this thought may have been germinated by the mistrust between sections of the Muslim and Hindu communities. It was fuelled by three sides mainly: the British colonial administrators who often used the 'divide and rule' policy; the Muslim elite classes who felt their powers would be lost once the British leave and the nation state of India is created; and some Hindu nationalist leaders who appeared to agree that Muslims are indeed a separate nation.
Vast sections of the Indian society at the time were opposed to the idea of a separate new state for Muslims. This included both Hindus and Muslims.
We should note here that, apart from experiments in Europe, the creation of nation states was in itself a very new idea in South Asia at the dawn of the 20th century, which was still under colonial rule.
The idea of a singular nation, created from disparate princely states and territories, arose from the anti-colonial movements, which was the only way it could have happened at that historical juncture.
In the process of fighting for independence from the British colonialism, two strands of thought emerged: one that saw the entire Indian subcontinent as a nation with a composite culture of all its religious and ethnic varieties; and the other that sought freedom based on religion, the largest dividing factor for the population when one dismisses the further divisions along castes and subsects.
Who opposed and who advocated two-nation theory?
The two-nation theory was widely advocated by Jinnah and the All India Muslim League, but in real practice, it was applied mainly in the northwestern provinces of India and the Muslim region of Bengal (which was divided in 1905 by the British into Hindu 'West' and Muslim 'East' provinces). Most Muslims in the rest of what became India did not join the exodus of Muslims to the new nation of Pakistan during the 1947 Partition.
Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the Indian nation, was among the most prominent leaders who opposed the two-nation theory. Much of the opposition had to do with the origin story of Muslims in the Indian subcontinent.
Islam was both a religion of conquest and conversion in the region. It is still a heated debate whether the conversions were forced on the population by the Persian-Mughal invaders, or voluntarily adopted by segments of the population, particularly those in the lower rung of the Hindu caste system, in order to escape that social stratification.
Several Muslim organisations and groups were opposed to the idea of two nations, including All India Azad Muslim Conference and Deobandi Muslims. The Momin Conference and many non-ashraf Muslims opposed the two-nation theory.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the 'Frontier Gandhi', was initially against the idea.
The advocates of a composite culture created by centuries of interaction between the two religions - the so-called Ganga–Jamuni Tehzeeb - were opposed to the two-nation theory.
British officials like Theodore Beck, the Quaker who played a key role in the creation of All India Muslim League in 1906, were supportive of the two-nation theory. India's last British Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, was initially opposed to it but eventually agreed on the Partition of the subcontinent and the creation of Pakistan.
The bloody history of Partition, the largest forced migration of humans, was the first major test of the two-nation theory. Even the basic data on it is contested, so suffice it to say that up to 16 million people were rooted out of their homes, and up to 2 million may have died, as per some accounts. The deaths came from hunger, the ravages of nature, sheer exhaustion and also at the hands of fellow humans.
When India became a Republic, its Constitution enshrined its composite nationalism, religious pluralism and defined the nation as secular.
Aftermath of the two-nation theory: Sectarian rift, insurgencies, separatism and creation of Bangladesh
Pakistan's tryst with the two-nation theory has been fraught with problems. Broadly speaking, it had to do with sectarian divisions, separatism, and terrorism.
Out of Pakistan's four provinces, only Punjab and Sindh had relatively stable adherence to the two-nation theory, whereas Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly North West Frontier Province) and Balochistan witnessed a number of insurgencies and terrorism.
Shia-Sunni sectarian divide, and ideological differences on how an Islamic nation should be run, are at the core of violence and terrorism in the years since Pakistan's formation.
The birth of Bangladesh in 1971 was the first major test of the two-nation theory on the basis of religion.
While Bangladeshis in the erstwhile East Pakistan remained Muslim in their religious beliefs, they saw themselves as different from West Pakistan culturally and ethnically, and the Bangla language became the key point of contestation, as opposed to the Urdu language advocated from the government based in West Pakistan.
Other issues were ethnic divisions, sectarian violence, and the persecution of other Muslim groups like the Ahmadiya, besides minorities like Hindus and Christians.
Muslim against Muslim in a nation formed around Muslim identity
Thousands of Muslims, both Shia and Sunni, died in sectarian violence in the past decades, with their places of worship often being the targets of bombings. Many leaders of various sects of Islam were killed over the years.
Muslim against Muslim was the fundamental trait of sectarian violence, with several militant, fundamentalist, and extremist groups taking root in Pakistan, such as Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (LeJ), the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), the Islamic State, Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan and Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan (SSP), to name a few.
The Sindhi nationalist movements that rose in post-Independence years are largely muted at present.
While the separatist movement in Sindh, mainly from the Muttahida Qaumi Movement, has been largely suppressed by the Pakistan military, it's a different story in Balochistan.
The Baloch, many of whom identify more with the larger Balochistan region that includes parts of Iranian Balochistan (Sistan and Baluchestan Province), have organised one of the most tenacious separatist movements in Pakistan.
The case of Gilgit-Baltistan is even more complicated. It's not a province of Pakistan, but an autonomous region with de facto provincial status, and many of its people want independence.
Perhaps the most vicious challenge to Pakistan's two-nation theory is taking place in KP province, as it got mixed with the ethnic affiliations of the Pashtuns with neighbouring Afghanistan.
It is the theatre of Pakistan's war on terror, where security forces are fighting TTP, Islamic State and al-Qaeda, among others.
So, are Pakistanis still proud of the two-nation theory?
Overall, the two-nation theory has not been a completely successful experiment for Pakistan.
However, ordinary citizens remain proud of their national identity.
Several polls in the past, including those by Pew Research Center and Chatham House, have shown that the majority of respondents identify themselves as Pakistanis first, meaning the idea of a nation based on religious identity is strongly felt among most Pakistanis.
To that extent, the two-nation theory is still relevant and surviving.