Three coups and a nation divided: A political history of Pakistan’s military takeovers

Ever since it came into being in 1947, Pakistan has struggled with the question of balancing civilian rule with the military.

Its politics has been time and again overhauled by coups, leaving behind deep-rooted consequences on government, civil rights, and national identity. It has experienced three massive coups—one in 1958, another in 1977, and a third in 1999—all of which changed the course of the history.

The first coup (1958–1969): The rise of Ayub Khan

Pakistan's first experience with military intervention was in 1958 when political unrest and administrative collapse came to a head.

The then Governor-General Iskander Mirza declared martial law and named General Ayub Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army at the time, Chief Martial Law Administrator. But this partnership did not last. Thirteen days later, Ayub Khan revolted against Mirza, overthrew him, and took on the presidency himself, banishing Mirza to England.

Ayub Khan created a very centralised presidential structure and governed for more than a decade. Though his rule witnessed industrialisation and development of infrastructure, it also witnessed mounting authoritarianism, repression of opposition, and widening gaps between the nation's two wings—West Pakistan and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

Growing discontent in East Pakistan increased as the people felt politically marginalised and economically neglected. Ayub Khan, rather than continuing with a constitutional change of power, asked General Yahya Khan, his successor as head of the army, to seize power using the military's "supra-constitutional" authority.

Yahya Khan declared martial law on March 25, 1969, and took over.

In an attempt to stabilise the country, Yahya Khan conducted national elections in 1970, regarded as the most open in Pakistan's history. Nevertheless, the outcome revealed underlying regional cleavages.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Awami League, powerful in East Pakistan, secured a resounding majority. Nevertheless, Yahya Khan and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) refusal to transfer power to the Awami League left the country in political gridlock.

Martial law was ended in 1972, and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto took over, eventually becoming Prime Minister in 1973 under a fresh constitution which reinstated Pakistan as a democratic republic.

The second coup (1977–1988): Zia-ul-Haq's reign

Following a short spell of democratic governance, Pakistan was again placed under the control of the army in 1977.

Bhutto's PPP had emerged victorious in the general elections, but the opposition Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), a coalition of right-wing and religious groups, leveled allegations of huge rigging by the government. The country was plagued by violent protest and civil unrest.

In the midst of the turmoil, the army chief General Zia-ul-Haq orchestrated a bloodless coup on July 5, 1977, ousting Bhutto, suspending the constitution, and declaring martial law.

Zia vowed to conduct new elections within 90 days, but these were indefinitely delayed. Bhutto was subsequently tried and in controversial circumstances executed in 1979. During Zia's rule, the foreign policy of Pakistan shifted towards the United States, particularly in the aftermath of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

In 1985, Zia conducted non-party general elections and made Muhammad Khan Junejo as Prime Minister. But Zia never lost significant power and deposed Junejo's government in 1988. Ironically, Zia himself was killed in a fatal plane crash later that year, ending his rule in a dramatic fashion, leaving the nation at political crossroads once more.

The third coup (1999–2008): Pervez Musharraf

The third and latest army coup in Pakistan took place in 1999, in the midst of the Kargil war with India.

Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, who had become increasingly uncomfortable with the actions of the army and General Pervez Musharraf's increasing dominance, tried to remove him and deny him a return from an official foreign visit.

In response, the military staged a coup on October 14, 1999, overthrowing Sharif and imposing martial law. Musharraf's coup was subsequently legitimised by the Supreme Court of Pakistan under the "doctrine of necessity," a judicial precedent normally employed to uphold military coups.

In 2001, Musharraf declared himself as the President, consolidating both civil and military powers. His tenure coincided with the US-led War on Terror, following the 9/11 attacks. Musharraf aligned Pakistan with Washington, receiving billions in aid but also drawing the country into a complex web of regional militancy and global diplomacy.

Even though Musharraf permitted general elections in 2002, these were criticised as being rigged.

By 2007, Musharraf's popularity had collapsed because of authoritarian measures, such as the removal of Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry and a crackdown on lawyers and civil society.

Under pressure from mass demonstrations and growing political opposition, Musharraf resigned in 2008 under threat of impeachment. He was replaced by Benazir Bhutto's widower, Asif Ali Zardari, who had just escaped being assassinated himself a few months earlier.

A fragile democracy

Each of Pakistan's three coups was not only a military takeover but a seismic shift in the country's political path. The repeated intervention by the military has weakened Pakistan's democratic institutions and made them fragile.