Witnessing snowfall is not something all Indians can experience all time. And for some of us, snow and shape of snowflakes is something we see only in cartoons and fairy tales. But anyone who sees a picture of snowflake is sure to be transfixed for a while.

It's a unique design, perfect structure bearing resemblance to a hexagon. The pristine form makes us amazed at nature's craftsmanship.

But did you know snowflakes are like human fingerprints in a sense no two of them are alike? Yes they have a hexagonal structure but there is an exact science behind the shape of snowflakes.

A snowflake forms when an extremely cold water droplet freezes on dust particle or pollen. As it falls to the ground, each snowflake encounters different atmospheric conditions. It turns into a crystal.

Also Read | <a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/rock-collected-220-years-ago-turns-out-to-be-an-entirely-new-mineral-351971">Rock collected 220 years ago turns out to be an entirely new mineral</a>

As the crystal falls to the ground, water vapor freezes on the primary crystal. This gives rise to formation of new crystals. This is visible in the form of six arms of the snowflake. There is an actual classification system for snowflakes and crystal shapes.

The classes are: stellar dendrites, sectored plates, rimed crystals, hollow columns, needles, spatial dendrites, capped columns and irregular forms.

The temperature at which the crystal forms and humidity in the air determines the basic shape of the crystal.

Snowflake on its own is a delicate, beautiful structure but in large quantities, it can even bring a megacity to a halt. Beauty of nature indeed.

Witnessing snowfall is not something all Indians can experience all time. And for some of us, snow and shape of snowflakes is something we see only in cartoons and fairy tales.

Witnessing snowfall is not something all Indians can experience all time. And for some of us, snow and shape of snowflakes is something we see only in cartoons and fairy tales. But anyone who sees a picture of snowflake is sure to be transfixed for a while. It's a unique design, perfect structure bearing resemblance to a hexagon. The pristine form makes us amazed at nature's craftsmanship. But did you know snowflakes are like human fingerprints in a sense no two of them are alike? Yes they have a hexagonal structure but there is an exact science behind the shape of snowflakes. A snowflake forms when an extremely cold water droplet freezes on dust particle or pollen. As it falls to the ground, each snowflake encounters different atmospheric conditions. It turns into a crystal. Also Read | Rock collected 220 years ago turns out to be an entirely new mineral As the crystal falls to the ground, water vapor freezes on the primary crystal. This gives rise to formation of new crystals. This is visible in the form of six arms of the snowflake. There is an actual classification system for snowflakes and crystal shapes. The classes are: stellar dendrites, sectored plates, rimed crystals, hollow columns, needles, spatial dendrites, capped columns and irregular forms. The temperature at which the crystal forms and humidity in the air determines the basic shape of the crystal. Snowflake on its own is a delicate, beautiful structure but in large quantities, it can even bring a megacity to a halt. Beauty of nature indeed.

Why snowflakes have their unique shape

As the United Kingdom&nbsp;grappled&nbsp;with the spread of new variant of coronvirus, the official records showed that 36,804 new Covid-19 cases were detected on December 22. It is not yet fully clear as to how many of these were caused by the new variant of coronavirus. 222,199 new coronavirus cases have been detected in the UK in last 7 days.

691 deaths were recorded on December 22. These were among the patients who were found positive in 28 days before that. 3,400 people have lost lives in 7 days leading to December 22.

According to UK scientists, the new coronavirus variant named 'VUI 202012/01' includes mutation in the 'spike' protein that may be the cause of easy spread of the virus among people.

As of 13 December, 1108 cases were caused by the new coronavirus according to Public Health England (PHE).

There is no concrete indication that the new coronavirus targets children as well. However, concerns are being raised.

The UK has found itself in a tough situation just as it becomes due to leave common European market in just about a week. Travel and transport restrictions from UK to other countries, notably those in the European Union (EU) are bound to make the effects of fresh trade barriers for EU-UK trade worse.&nbsp;

As the United Kingdom grappled with the spread of new variant of coronvirus, the official records showed that 36,804 new Covid-19 cases were detected on December 22.

As the United Kingdom grappled with the spread of new variant of coronvirus, the official records showed that 36,804 new Covid-19 cases were detected on December 22. It is not yet fully clear as to how many of these were caused by the new variant of coronavirus. 222,199 new coronavirus cases have been detected in the UK in last 7 days. 691 deaths were recorded on December 22. These were among the patients who were found positive in 28 days before that. 3,400 people have lost lives in 7 days leading to December 22. According to UK scientists, the new coronavirus variant named 'VUI 202012/01' includes mutation in the 'spike' protein that may be the cause of easy spread of the virus among people. As of 13 December, 1108 cases were caused by the new coronavirus according to Public Health England (PHE). There is no concrete indication that the new coronavirus targets children as well. However, concerns are being raised. The UK has found itself in a tough situation just as it becomes due to leave common European market in just about a week. Travel and transport restrictions from UK to other countries, notably those in the European Union (EU) are bound to make the effects of fresh trade barriers for EU-UK trade worse.

UK coronavirus update: More than 30 thousand new cases

Argentina's Senate is due to decide next week on whether to give final approval to a bill that would allow abortion up to fourteenth week of pregnancy. The bill is backed by the government but has divided the society that has close ties with Roman Catholic faith. The bill has already been passed by the lower house of Congress on December 11.

"We have the right to be able to decide about our own lives, about whether we want to have children and, if we want to have them, how many we want to have. If we decide to interrupt the pregnancy, we have the right to do it autonomously and freely," Yamila Picasso, a 33-year-old activist, told Reuters outside Congress, where she was demonstrating.

Picasso is a member of the National Campaign for the Right to Legal, Safe and Free Abortion, which has been demanding the new law for years.

On the other side of the debate is Ana Marmora, a 29-year-old lawyer and journalist who is a spokeswoman for the Young Front, a group that rejects the legalization of abortion.

She told Reuters in an interview at the group's Buenos Aires headquarters that backers of the bill want women to be able to terminate pregnancies not out of need but simple desire.

A similar bill was defeated by Argentina's Congress in 2018. Current law allows for abortion only when there is a serious risk to the mother's health or in the event of rape.

The current bill is to be debated in the Senate on Tuesday next week. It is expected that demonstrations will be held both, for and against the bill.

(With Reuters inputs)

Argentina's Senate is due to decide next week on whether to give final approval to a bill that would allow abortion up to fourteenth week of pregnancy. The bill is backed by the government but has divided the society that has close ties with Roman Catholic faith.

Argentina's Senate is due to decide next week on whether to give final approval to a bill that would allow abortion up to fourteenth week of pregnancy. The bill is backed by the government but has divided the society that has close ties with Roman Catholic faith. The bill has already been passed by the lower house of Congress on December 11. "We have the right to be able to decide about our own lives, about whether we want to have children and, if we want to have them, how many we want to have. If we decide to interrupt the pregnancy, we have the right to do it autonomously and freely," Yamila Picasso, a 33-year-old activist, told Reuters outside Congress, where she was demonstrating. Picasso is a member of the National Campaign for the Right to Legal, Safe and Free Abortion, which has been demanding the new law for years. On the other side of the debate is Ana Marmora, a 29-year-old lawyer and journalist who is a spokeswoman for the Young Front, a group that rejects the legalization of abortion. She told Reuters in an interview at the group's Buenos Aires headquarters that backers of the bill want women to be able to terminate pregnancies not out of need but simple desire. A similar bill was defeated by Argentina's Congress in 2018. Current law allows for abortion only when there is a serious risk to the mother's health or in the event of rape. The current bill is to be debated in the Senate on Tuesday next week. It is expected that demonstrations will be held both, for and against the bill. (With Reuters inputs)

Abortion bill in Argentine senate expected to heat-up debate

Today in history: First kidney transplant, Saturn's satellite discovered

Australia is land of creatures that may not always be as sweet lookimg as Kangaroos. Videos of scary spiders living inside Aussie houses do rounds on social media periodically. So its perhaps fitting that scientists would identify a giant crocodile or something there. This is exactly what has happened.

A new species of a crocodile, informally called the 'Swamp King' has been identified by the scientists in Australia. The crocodile lived in prehistoric times, about 5.33 and 2.58 million years ago.

The croc was&nbsp;more than 16 feet (five metres) long and was one of the top predators in Australia, as per press release from University of Queensland.

The creature has been named Paludirex vincenti. Paludirex means swamp kingt in Latin while 'vincenti' honours Geoff Vincent, who first found the fossiled skull of the crocodile.

Just to get a sense of how scary this crocodile was, it should be mentioned that it had more heavy-set skull than largest living crocodile today. This may also translate to greater bite force.

As per the university, Paludirex vincenti was one of top predators in Australia and was able to eat giant prehistoric marsupials.

However, the reason why this crocodile went extinct is not yet known.

Australia is land of creatures that may not always be as sweet lookimg as Kangaroos. Videos of scary spiders living inside Aussie houses do rounds on social media periodically.

Australia is land of creatures that may not always be as sweet lookimg as Kangaroos. Videos of scary spiders living inside Aussie houses do rounds on social media periodically. So its perhaps fitting that scientists would identify a giant crocodile or something there. This is exactly what has happened. A new species of a crocodile, informally called the 'Swamp King' has been identified by the scientists in Australia. The crocodile lived in prehistoric times, about 5.33 and 2.58 million years ago. The croc was more than 16 feet (five metres) long and was one of the top predators in Australia, as per press release from University of Queensland. The creature has been named Paludirex vincenti. Paludirex means swamp kingt in Latin while 'vincenti' honours Geoff Vincent, who first found the fossiled skull of the crocodile. Just to get a sense of how scary this crocodile was, it should be mentioned that it had more heavy-set skull than largest living crocodile today. This may also translate to greater bite force. As per the university, Paludirex vincenti was one of top predators in Australia and was able to eat giant prehistoric marsupials. However, the reason why this crocodile went extinct is not yet known.

'Swamp King' croc identified in Australia

US President-elect Joe Biden said that he had not seen any evidence that cyberattack against the US was under control. He lashed out at US President Donald Trump for being reluctant to name Russia. US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and Attorney General William Barr have both accused Moscow.

“It is a grave risk and it continues," Biden told reporters in Wilmington, Delaware. "I see no evidence that it’s under control. I see none. Heard of none. Department won’t even brief us on many things. So I know of nothing that suggests it’s under control."

Biden faulted Trump for stripping U.S. defenses against cyberattacks, saying: "This assault happened on Donald Trump's watch, when he wasn't watching."

Trump has floated the idea on Twitter that China might be responsible for the hacking spree. Uncovered last week, it breached at least half a dozen U.S. government agencies and left thousands of American companies exposed.

Also Read | <a href="https://www.wionews.com/world/trump-issues-series-of-pardons-including-russia-probe-figure-george-papadopoulos-351684">Trump issues series of pardons, including Russia probe figure George Papadopoulos</a>

Joe Biden has warned that the cyberattack will not go unanswered once he takes office on January 20. He said his administration will take meaningful steps to respond to the cyber breach.

The incoming White House chief of staff said on Sunday that Biden's response to the hacking campaign would go beyond sanctions. Ron Klain said Biden was mapping out ways to degrade the capacity of foreign actors to engage in cyber attacks against the United States.

Options being mulled by the Biden administration to punish Moscow for its alleged role include financial penalties and retaliatory hacks on Russian infrastructure, people familiar with the matter have told Reuters.

The Kremlin denies any role in the hacking.

"The question of the damage done remains to be determined. We have to look at, very closely, the nature of the breaches, how extensive they are, and what damage has been done," Biden said.

(With Reuters inputs)

US President-elect Joe Biden said that he had not seen any evidence that cyberattack against the US was under control. He lashed out at US President Donald Trump for being reluctant to name Russia.

US President-elect Joe Biden said that he had not seen any evidence that cyberattack against the US was under control. He lashed out at US President Donald Trump for being reluctant to name Russia. US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and Attorney General William Barr have both accused Moscow. “It is a grave risk and it continues," Biden told reporters in Wilmington, Delaware. "I see no evidence that it’s under control. I see none. Heard of none. Department won’t even brief us on many things. So I know of nothing that suggests it’s under control." Biden faulted Trump for stripping U.S. defenses against cyberattacks, saying: "This assault happened on Donald Trump's watch, when he wasn't watching." Trump has floated the idea on Twitter that China might be responsible for the hacking spree. Uncovered last week, it breached at least half a dozen U.S. government agencies and left thousands of American companies exposed. Also Read | Trump issues series of pardons, including Russia probe figure George Papadopoulos Joe Biden has warned that the cyberattack will not go unanswered once he takes office on January 20. He said his administration will take meaningful steps to respond to the cyber breach. The incoming White House chief of staff said on Sunday that Biden's response to the hacking campaign would go beyond sanctions. Ron Klain said Biden was mapping out ways to degrade the capacity of foreign actors to engage in cyber attacks against the United States. Options being mulled by the Biden administration to punish Moscow for its alleged role include financial penalties and retaliatory hacks on Russian infrastructure, people familiar with the matter have told Reuters. The Kremlin denies any role in the hacking. "The question of the damage done remains to be determined. We have to look at, very closely, the nature of the breaches, how extensive they are, and what damage has been done," Biden said. (With Reuters inputs)

Trump must put blame on Russia for cyberattack, says Biden

After a snap 48-hour ban to keep new variant of coronavirus from spreading, France and Britain are set to reopen cross-border travel on Wednesday. The blanket ban on travel and transport has threatened supply chains in UK. British PM Boris Johnson faced growing pressure to resolve the earlier deadlock as dramatic images of hundreds of lorries in Dover did rounds.

Late Tuesday, UK Transport Secretary Grant Shapps announced Britain and France had settled on a protocol that "will see the French border reopen to those travelling for urgent reasons, provided they have a certified negative COVID test."

However, he urged lorry drivers not to head to the southern county of Kent in expectations of boarding a ferry or train.

French Transport Minister Jean-Baptiste Djebarri also confirmed that air travel, boats and Eurostar trains would "resume service as of tomorrow morning".

Also Read | <a href="https://www.wionews.com/world/uk-travel-bans-should-be-discontinued-to-avoid-supply-chain-disruptions-eu-351653">UK travel bans should be discontinued to avoid supply chain disruptions: EU</a>

"French nationals, people living in France and those with a legitimate reason will have to be carrying a negative test," he said.

Despite the breakthrough in talks congestion around the key southern port of Dover remains unlikely to recede in the short term.

Dover authorities said late on Tuesday (local time) that the transit hub would reopen from midnight but only for travellers with negative result.

The measures imposed on hauliers have caused concern over shortages of some fresh food products over a Christmas period already marred by strict coronavirus restrictions.

More than 2,800 lorries remain stranded in the southern English county of Kent, unable to make the crossing to France, with drivers having spent a second night sleeping in their cabs.

As night fell on Tuesday, drivers of some 800 trucks parked at a nearby disused airport sounded their horns for more than half an hour in protest.

Despite the fresh agreement -- which will be reviewed on December 31 -- it is unclear when traffic will begin moving again.

(With AFP inputs)

After a snap 48-hour ban to keep new variant of coronavirus from spreading, France and Britain are set to reopen cross-border travel on Wednesday. The blanket ban on travel and transport has threatened supply chains in UK.

After a snap 48-hour ban to keep new variant of coronavirus from spreading, France and Britain are set to reopen cross-border travel on Wednesday. The blanket ban on travel and transport has threatened supply chains in UK. British PM Boris Johnson faced growing pressure to resolve the earlier deadlock as dramatic images of hundreds of lorries in Dover did rounds. Late Tuesday, UK Transport Secretary Grant Shapps announced Britain and France had settled on a protocol that "will see the French border reopen to those travelling for urgent reasons, provided they have a certified negative COVID test." However, he urged lorry drivers not to head to the southern county of Kent in expectations of boarding a ferry or train. French Transport Minister Jean-Baptiste Djebarri also confirmed that air travel, boats and Eurostar trains would "resume service as of tomorrow morning". Also Read | UK travel bans should be discontinued to avoid supply chain disruptions: EU "French nationals, people living in France and those with a legitimate reason will have to be carrying a negative test," he said. Despite the breakthrough in talks congestion around the key southern port of Dover remains unlikely to recede in the short term. Dover authorities said late on Tuesday (local time) that the transit hub would reopen from midnight but only for travellers with negative result. The measures imposed on hauliers have caused concern over shortages of some fresh food products over a Christmas period already marred by strict coronavirus restrictions. More than 2,800 lorries remain stranded in the southern English county of Kent, unable to make the crossing to France, with drivers having spent a second night sleeping in their cabs. As night fell on Tuesday, drivers of some 800 trucks parked at a nearby disused airport sounded their horns for more than half an hour in protest. Despite the fresh agreement -- which will be reviewed on December 31 -- it is unclear when traffic will begin moving again. (With AFP inputs)

New coronavirus fears: Britain-France transport ban eased

Pakistan Democratic Movement (PDM), The anti-government coalition is going ahead with a rally in Mardan, Pakistan despite a 'ban' imposed by district administration. The district administration has refused permission citing fears of coronavirus spread.

Geo TV quoted spokesperson of Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) to say that Maryam Nawaz was going to attend the rally.&nbsp;

As per the report, the protesters will gather at Gaju Baba Khan flyover in the city. The protesters will be led by JUI-F and PDM chief Maulana Fazlur Rehman, PML-N Vice-President Maryam Nawaz and senior PPP leader Yousuf Raza Gilani.&nbsp;

On Tuesday, PDM announced second phase of its agitation against Pakistan PM Imran Khan.

The rally in Mardan, would be followed by another public meeting in Larkana in Sindh on December 27 on the eve of the death anniversary of Former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto.

The PDM steering committee has decided to expand public meetings in smaller cities as well.

The protests will be held in Bahawalpur on December 30, Malakand January 3, Bannu January 6, Khazdar January 9, Loralai January 13, Tharparkar January 16, Faisalabad January 18, Sargodha January 23 and Sialkot on January 27.

(With PTI inputs)

Pakistan Democratic Movement (PDM), The anti-government coalition is going ahead with a rally in Mardan, Pakistan despite a 'ban' imposed by district administration.

Pakistan Democratic Movement (PDM), The anti-government coalition is going ahead with a rally in Mardan, Pakistan despite a 'ban' imposed by district administration. The district administration has refused permission citing fears of coronavirus spread. Geo TV quoted spokesperson of Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) to say that Maryam Nawaz was going to attend the rally. As per the report, the protesters will gather at Gaju Baba Khan flyover in the city. The protesters will be led by JUI-F and PDM chief Maulana Fazlur Rehman, PML-N Vice-President Maryam Nawaz and senior PPP leader Yousuf Raza Gilani. On Tuesday, PDM announced second phase of its agitation against Pakistan PM Imran Khan. The rally in Mardan, would be followed by another public meeting in Larkana in Sindh on December 27 on the eve of the death anniversary of Former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. The PDM steering committee has decided to expand public meetings in smaller cities as well. The protests will be held in Bahawalpur on December 30, Malakand January 3, Bannu January 6, Khazdar January 9, Loralai January 13, Tharparkar January 16, Faisalabad January 18, Sargodha January 23 and Sialkot on January 27. (With PTI inputs)

Pakistan: PDM coalition to hold anti-government rally despite ban

Russian President Vladimir Putin on Tuesday signed legislation that will grant former presidents lifetime immunity once they leave office. The former presidents will also be exempt from questioning from police or investigators as well as searches or arrests. The legislation was part of constitutional amendments that were approved this summer in a nationwide vote that allow Putin, 68, to remain president until 2036.

Before this bill, former presidents were immune from prosecution only for crimes committed while in office.

Now a former president can still be stripped of immunity if accused of treason or other grave crimes and the charges are confirmed by the Supreme and Constitutional courts.

But the legislation Putin signed on Tuesday will additionally grant former presidents a lifetime seat in the Federation Council or senate, a position that assures immunity from prosecution upon leaving the presidency.&nbsp;

Last month the pending bills sparked rumours that the longtime Russian leader is planning to step down because of poor health -- a claim the Kremlin denied.

On Tuesday the lower house State Duma passed legislation making information about employees of Russia's judicial system, law enforcement and regulatory and military bodies confidential.

The bill now requires Putin's signature to become law, a step that is considered a formality.

It comes a day after opposition figure Alexei Navalny said he telephoned an alleged security agent and tricked him into admitting the Federal Security Service (FSB) tried to kill him in August by poisoning.

Navalny said he had gained access to the security agent's phone number from leaked logs and travel records. 
&nbsp;

Russian President Vladimir Putin on Tuesday signed legislation that will grant former presidents lifetime immunity once they leave office. The former presidents will also be exempt from questioning from police or investigators as well as searches or arrests.

Russian President Vladimir Putin on Tuesday signed legislation that will grant former presidents lifetime immunity once they leave office. The former presidents will also be exempt from questioning from police or investigators as well as searches or arrests. The legislation was part of constitutional amendments that were approved this summer in a nationwide vote that allow Putin, 68, to remain president until 2036. Before this bill, former presidents were immune from prosecution only for crimes committed while in office. Now a former president can still be stripped of immunity if accused of treason or other grave crimes and the charges are confirmed by the Supreme and Constitutional courts. But the legislation Putin signed on Tuesday will additionally grant former presidents a lifetime seat in the Federation Council or senate, a position that assures immunity from prosecution upon leaving the presidency. Last month the pending bills sparked rumours that the longtime Russian leader is planning to step down because of poor health -- a claim the Kremlin denied. On Tuesday the lower house State Duma passed legislation making information about employees of Russia's judicial system, law enforcement and regulatory and military bodies confidential. The bill now requires Putin's signature to become law, a step that is considered a formality. It comes a day after opposition figure Alexei Navalny said he telephoned an alleged security agent and tricked him into admitting the Federal Security Service (FSB) tried to kill him in August by poisoning. Navalny said he had gained access to the security agent's phone number from leaked logs and travel records.

Putin signs bill awarding former presidents lifetime immunity

Today it is legally indisputable that the high seas belong to all. This means China`s navy has as much right to ply the Indian Ocean as any other nation, even though it might make countries like India feel a creeping sense of dread.Likewise, it is a well-established fact the People`s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) has been sailing in the Indian Ocean far more frequently in recent years, compounded by fears that Beijing is seeking to establish new naval bases on the periphery of this ocean.&nbsp;

Yet, is China really trying to dominate the Indian Ocean? Looking back, a major step for China was its first deployment of warships to the Gulf of Aden to join an international counter-piracy effort. The first trio of warships arrived in December 2008, and a task force has seen a constant presence there ever since.Chinese warships remain despite pirate attacks disappearing almost entirely in the area.&nbsp;

<div class="ui-state-default" contenteditable="false">
<div class="twitter-block" draggable="false">
<div class="videoWrapper trancodeVideo"><iframe allowfullscreen="" autoplay="1" class="includeVideo" frameborder="0" height="350" src="https://www.wionews.com/world/japans-record-52-billion-military-budget-aims-at-safeguarding-against-china-351450/embed" style="width:100%;max-width:560px;" width="560"></iframe></div>
</div>
<a class="close-mark close-div" href="#" id="jqclosemark">×</a></div>

&nbsp;

However, such assets have also been used for non-combatant evacuation operations in Yemen and Libya, plus ships are available for humanitarian assistance operations.China is understandably concerned about protecting its sea lanes, the conduits that bring in raw materials (9.3 million barrels of oil per day, with 44% of Chinese oil imports coming from the Middle East, in 2018) and which simultaneously deliver finished products to Africa and Europe (20% of China`s GDP comes from exports).&nbsp;

Also Read | <a href="https://www.wionews.com/south-asia/how-pakistan-chinas-project-turned-balochistan-into-land-of-disappeared-350877">How Pakistan, China's project turned Balochistan into land of disappeared</a>

Strategists call these sea lines of communication (SLOC), and Beijing wants to protect them from threats in peacetime and against hostile powers in times of tension or war.China`s economic investments continue to grow, as does the diaspora of its citizens. The Middle East and Africa comprise an essential part of Chairman Xi Jinping`s flagship Belt and Road Initiative, and its importance is seen in the fact that Xi has visited the region 18 times since he gained power in 2012.

Also Read | <a href="https://www.wionews.com/south-asia/as-us-withdraws-aid-chinese-mission-to-push-sri-lanka-further-into-debt-succeeds-350555">As US withdraws aid, Chinese mission to push Sri Lanka further into debt succeeds</a>

Furthermore, there are particular chokepoints along these SLOCs, locations where shipping is funneled and becomes particularly vulnerable. The most obvious of these is the Strait of Malacca between Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. Other chokepoints are the Strait of Hormuz, Bab-el-Mandab (the Horn of Africa) and Suez Canal.China`s interest in the Indian Ocean region is a product of growing commercial interests, with the PLAN being handed the task of safeguarding them.&nbsp;

This is not a new concern, for Beijing`s 2015 Defense White Paper stated that "with the growth of China`s national interests, its national security is more vulnerable to international and regional turmoil...and the security of overseas interests concerning energy and resources, strategic sea lines of communication, as well as institutions, personnel and assets abroad, has become an imminent issue".

In actual fact, three critical factors affect how China can project power, protect its SLOCs and keep chokepoints open. The PLA is acutely aware of all three, and much effort is devoted to negating current disadvantages. First is the PLAN`s rather modest presence in the Indian Ocean, especially compared to powers like India or the USA.&nbsp;

Second is the PLAN`s limited air defense and anti-submarine warfare capacity. Third is China`s rather limited logistics/sustainment infrastructure along the Indian Ocean`s periphery.If China is to dominate the Indian Ocean, if that is its aim, it must address each of the above weaknesses. Interestingly, the US Naval War College recently published a report addressing the PLAN`s utilization of the Indian Ocean.&nbsp;

Authored by Jeffrey Becker, the report entitled Securing China`s Lifelines across the Indian Ocean provides insights into Chinese ambitions.It summarized China`s predicament as follows: "To address these challenges, Beijing has already undertaken a series of initiatives, including expanding the capabilities of China`s base in Djibouti and leveraging the nation`s extensive commercial shipping fleet to provide logistics support. Evidence suggests that China may also be pursuing other policy options as well, such as increasing the number of advanced PLAN assets deployed to the region and establishing additional overseas military facilities."Becker admitted, "However, while the PLAN`s ability to operate in the Indian Ocean has improved considerably, its ability to project power into the region, and defend access to SLOCs and chokepoints in times of crisis, remains limited."

Addressing each of the three factors in turn, the first was China`s modest naval presence in the Indian Ocean, with just two warships and a support vessel on permanent rotation to the Gulf of Aden. Other warships may occasionally make passage or conduct exercises, plus it is estimated that Chinese submarines perform just two forays into the Indian Ocean annually on average.

Nonetheless, Chinese naval exercises west of the Malacca Strait (but still in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean) are becoming more common. These have two advantages, familiarizing crews with the area, and normalizing the appearance of PLAN ships.

It is certainly possible for the PLAN to deploy more ships there, for it is the largest navy in the world in terms of hull numbers. Becker quoted one source suggesting "that China is already capable of maintaining about 18 ships on station fulltime in the Indian Ocean, given the PLAN`s current force posture".

Senior Captain Liang Fang at China`s National Defense University has written papers advocating that the PLAN deploy aircraft carriers there to protect SLOCs. A Chinese carrier group operating around the Horn of Africa would certainly make a bold statement about Chinese power projection capabilities, and could provide leverage over nearby countries.

However, it is rare for Chinese experts to directly discuss any concept of a dedicated PLAN Indian Ocean squadron.The second aforementioned factor is the PLAN`s limited air defense and anti-submarine warfare capacity.&nbsp;

Close to home, Chinese warships enjoy support from land-based missiles and aircraft, plus a heavy concentration of submarines, but these are luxuries not afforded in distant seas. Such support would be absent in the Indian Ocean, plus Chinese assets would be within land-based strike range of potential adversaries like India.&nbsp;

The latter, especially in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, is boosting its ability to detect and track foreign submarines and surface ships.The defensive capacity of Chinese warships is improving, though, The Type 052D destroyer, for example, has 64 vertical-launch missile cells that can fire missiles against multiple enemy aircraft.&nbsp;

However, within their first five years of service since 2014, none had deployed to the Gulf of Aden. Significantly, their first foray with a Gulf of Aden task force occurred in May 2019. Moving on, the third factor is China`s limited logistics support infrastructure in the Indian Ocean region. China formally opened a shore-based base in Djibouti on 1 August 2017.&nbsp;

China is not the only country with a military presence in Djibouti, for France, Italy, Japan and the USA all have military facilities there, with the Saudis to build one too.China has been expanding the pier at its Djibouti military base in recent weeks, sufficient to host at least a four-ship flotilla, including the large Type 901 auxiliary ship.&nbsp;

The future deployment of more advanced weaponry to Djibouti - such as surface-to-air missiles or anti-submarine aircraft - would indicate more urgent Chinese intent. Already, one of six berths at Djibouti`s commercial Doraleh Multipurpose Port is reserved for use by the PLA.

Becker commented on auxiliary ships: "While these ships could be used to support other vessels in the fleet, given their limited numbers, and the fact that they were designed to support the PLAN`s future carrier strike groups, expanding facilities in Djibouti to support Type 901s may indicate that the base could also host a PLAN carrier strike group in the future. Indeed, the size and nature of the facilities being built at Djibouti suggest that the PLAN is establishing the capability to support a carrier strike group from its first overseas base should it so chose.

"China is well aware of the advantages that new regional logistics bases would bring, and Pakistan is usually touted as the most likely location. Becker noted, though, "...At least in the near term, the likelihood of the PLAN obtaining access to a military facility which it could use during a conflict remains remote, as many Indian Ocean region countries seek to maintain a balance in their relations between regional powers, and appear unlikely to abandon this hedging approach."

One Chinese scholar, Gao Wensheng of Tianjin Normal University, encourages setting up such Chinese "strategic fulcrum ports" to enhance logistics support in the region. This topic, often referred to as the "string of pearls theory", has generated a lot of heat and noise. Such bases along the coast of the Indian Ocean - whether dual use or purely military - would undeniably greatly aid the PLAN`s ability to operate so far from home.

Becker assessed, "Over the past decade, the PLAN has proven capable of sustaining small groups of vessels in the Indian Ocean for long periods of time. However, though a three-ship taskforce is sufficient for the PLAN`s counterpiracy needs in peacetime, defending access to Indian Ocean SLOCs in a conflict would require a much larger and more sustained force, and the PLAN has only a limited number of replenishment ships capable of supporting far-seas operations."

A shortage of replenishment ships (currently eight Type 903/903A and two Type 901 vessels) could force China to utilize its massive commercial fleet, one of the largest in the world.

Becker indeed noted: "Beijing has already taken steps so that the fleet can better support PLAN activities. For example, it has promulgated regulations requiring certain civilian vessels - including roll-on/roll-off vessels, tankers and container ships - be built to military specifications, theoretically facilitating their future use by the navy with few if any modifications.&nbsp;

In September 2016, China enacted the Law of the People`s Republic of China on National Defense Transportation, which improves the process for military requisition of civilian transportation assets during wartime, natural disasters, emergencies or `special circumstances`, both domestically and abroad."Chinese commercial vessels have taken part in maritime exercises, meaning that an entity such as COSCO could easily be called upon to support the PLAN in the Indian Ocean to augment naval capabilities.&nbsp;

Furthermore, Chinese state-owned companies own or operate port facilities around the region (including Djibouti, Egypt, Malaysia, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka and the UAE), and they could provide some degree of sustainment.

In line with other analysis, Becker concluded: "...Other than its base in Djibouti, the PLAN does not, at present, appear to have arrangements with any other country in the region that would allow it to preposition specialized military equipment or technicians required to use that equipment, even in port facilities owned or operated by Chinese state-owned firms. Host governments whose ports do service PLAN vessels during a conflict, or allow the PLA to preposition military equipment on their territory, could possibly be dragged into the conflict as a co-belligerent."

Yet China has slightly improved its posture by developing more comprehensive naval facilities farther south within China - including an aircraft carrier base at Yulin on Hainan Island, thus speeding up the PLAN`s ability to deploy assets to the Indian Ocean. China could also surge platforms from reclaimed reef bases in the South China Sea, as they can harbor ships and accommodate aircraft such as fighters, maritime patrol and aerial refueling types.&nbsp;

This would give the PLA a quicker response to any contingency in the Malacca Strait, for instance.It would make sense for China to establish a second overseas military base at the eastern end of the Indian Ocean, to help defend access to the region.&nbsp;

For many years, locations such as Myanmar have been discussed. Or even farther east, China`s military relationship with Phnom Penh has become quite exclusive in recent years. In 2019 there were media reports that China may have forged an agreement for the PLAN to use a Cambodian naval base, plus a large and mysterious airport is being constructed in Cambodia.&nbsp;

Speculation is rife that the PLA could one day use the latter, even though Cambodia is some 1,000km from the Malacca Strait.Becker suggested another possibility, that Beijing may simply be content to emulate the Soviet Union`s past presence in the Indian Ocean. The Cold War power sought only limited SLOC protection and localized sea denial, as opposed to outright sea control. This could represent an achievable solution for China too.

Today it is legally indisputable that the high seas belong to all. This means China`s navy has as much right to ply the Indian Ocean as any other nation, even though it might make countries like India feel a creeping sense of dread.

Today it is legally indisputable that the high seas belong to all. This means China`s navy has as much right to ply the Indian Ocean as any other nation, even though it might make countries like India feel a creeping sense of dread.Likewise, it is a well-established fact the People`s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) has been sailing in the Indian Ocean far more frequently in recent years, compounded by fears that Beijing is seeking to establish new naval bases on the periphery of this ocean. Yet, is China really trying to dominate the Indian Ocean? Looking back, a major step for China was its first deployment of warships to the Gulf of Aden to join an international counter-piracy effort. The first trio of warships arrived in December 2008, and a task force has seen a constant presence there ever since.Chinese warships remain despite pirate attacks disappearing almost entirely in the area. × However, such assets have also been used for non-combatant evacuation operations in Yemen and Libya, plus ships are available for humanitarian assistance operations.China is understandably concerned about protecting its sea lanes, the conduits that bring in raw materials (9.3 million barrels of oil per day, with 44% of Chinese oil imports coming from the Middle East, in 2018) and which simultaneously deliver finished products to Africa and Europe (20% of China`s GDP comes from exports). Also Read | How Pakistan, China's project turned Balochistan into land of disappeared Strategists call these sea lines of communication (SLOC), and Beijing wants to protect them from threats in peacetime and against hostile powers in times of tension or war.China`s economic investments continue to grow, as does the diaspora of its citizens. The Middle East and Africa comprise an essential part of Chairman Xi Jinping`s flagship Belt and Road Initiative, and its importance is seen in the fact that Xi has visited the region 18 times since he gained power in 2012. Also Read | As US withdraws aid, Chinese mission to push Sri Lanka further into debt succeeds Furthermore, there are particular chokepoints along these SLOCs, locations where shipping is funneled and becomes particularly vulnerable. The most obvious of these is the Strait of Malacca between Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia. Other chokepoints are the Strait of Hormuz, Bab-el-Mandab (the Horn of Africa) and Suez Canal.China`s interest in the Indian Ocean region is a product of growing commercial interests, with the PLAN being handed the task of safeguarding them. This is not a new concern, for Beijing`s 2015 Defense White Paper stated that "with the growth of China`s national interests, its national security is more vulnerable to international and regional turmoil...and the security of overseas interests concerning energy and resources, strategic sea lines of communication, as well as institutions, personnel and assets abroad, has become an imminent issue". In actual fact, three critical factors affect how China can project power, protect its SLOCs and keep chokepoints open. The PLA is acutely aware of all three, and much effort is devoted to negating current disadvantages. First is the PLAN`s rather modest presence in the Indian Ocean, especially compared to powers like India or the USA. Second is the PLAN`s limited air defense and anti-submarine warfare capacity. Third is China`s rather limited logistics/sustainment infrastructure along the Indian Ocean`s periphery.If China is to dominate the Indian Ocean, if that is its aim, it must address each of the above weaknesses. Interestingly, the US Naval War College recently published a report addressing the PLAN`s utilization of the Indian Ocean. Authored by Jeffrey Becker, the report entitled Securing China`s Lifelines across the Indian Ocean provides insights into Chinese ambitions.It summarized China`s predicament as follows: "To address these challenges, Beijing has already undertaken a series of initiatives, including expanding the capabilities of China`s base in Djibouti and leveraging the nation`s extensive commercial shipping fleet to provide logistics support. Evidence suggests that China may also be pursuing other policy options as well, such as increasing the number of advanced PLAN assets deployed to the region and establishing additional overseas military facilities."Becker admitted, "However, while the PLAN`s ability to operate in the Indian Ocean has improved considerably, its ability to project power into the region, and defend access to SLOCs and chokepoints in times of crisis, remains limited." Addressing each of the three factors in turn, the first was China`s modest naval presence in the Indian Ocean, with just two warships and a support vessel on permanent rotation to the Gulf of Aden. Other warships may occasionally make passage or conduct exercises, plus it is estimated that Chinese submarines perform just two forays into the Indian Ocean annually on average. Nonetheless, Chinese naval exercises west of the Malacca Strait (but still in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean) are becoming more common. These have two advantages, familiarizing crews with the area, and normalizing the appearance of PLAN ships. It is certainly possible for the PLAN to deploy more ships there, for it is the largest navy in the world in terms of hull numbers. Becker quoted one source suggesting "that China is already capable of maintaining about 18 ships on station fulltime in the Indian Ocean, given the PLAN`s current force posture". Senior Captain Liang Fang at China`s National Defense University has written papers advocating that the PLAN deploy aircraft carriers there to protect SLOCs. A Chinese carrier group operating around the Horn of Africa would certainly make a bold statement about Chinese power projection capabilities, and could provide leverage over nearby countries. However, it is rare for Chinese experts to directly discuss any concept of a dedicated PLAN Indian Ocean squadron.The second aforementioned factor is the PLAN`s limited air defense and anti-submarine warfare capacity. Close to home, Chinese warships enjoy support from land-based missiles and aircraft, plus a heavy concentration of submarines, but these are luxuries not afforded in distant seas. Such support would be absent in the Indian Ocean, plus Chinese assets would be within land-based strike range of potential adversaries like India. The latter, especially in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, is boosting its ability to detect and track foreign submarines and surface ships.The defensive capacity of Chinese warships is improving, though, The Type 052D destroyer, for example, has 64 vertical-launch missile cells that can fire missiles against multiple enemy aircraft. However, within their first five years of service since 2014, none had deployed to the Gulf of Aden. Significantly, their first foray with a Gulf of Aden task force occurred in May 2019. Moving on, the third factor is China`s limited logistics support infrastructure in the Indian Ocean region. China formally opened a shore-based base in Djibouti on 1 August 2017. China is not the only country with a military presence in Djibouti, for France, Italy, Japan and the USA all have military facilities there, with the Saudis to build one too.China has been expanding the pier at its Djibouti military base in recent weeks, sufficient to host at least a four-ship flotilla, including the large Type 901 auxiliary ship. The future deployment of more advanced weaponry to Djibouti - such as surface-to-air missiles or anti-submarine aircraft - would indicate more urgent Chinese intent. Already, one of six berths at Djibouti`s commercial Doraleh Multipurpose Port is reserved for use by the PLA. Becker commented on auxiliary ships: "While these ships could be used to support other vessels in the fleet, given their limited numbers, and the fact that they were designed to support the PLAN`s future carrier strike groups, expanding facilities in Djibouti to support Type 901s may indicate that the base could also host a PLAN carrier strike group in the future. Indeed, the size and nature of the facilities being built at Djibouti suggest that the PLAN is establishing the capability to support a carrier strike group from its first overseas base should it so chose. "China is well aware of the advantages that new regional logistics bases would bring, and Pakistan is usually touted as the most likely location. Becker noted, though, "...At least in the near term, the likelihood of the PLAN obtaining access to a military facility which it could use during a conflict remains remote, as many Indian Ocean region countries seek to maintain a balance in their relations between regional powers, and appear unlikely to abandon this hedging approach." One Chinese scholar, Gao Wensheng of Tianjin Normal University, encourages setting up such Chinese "strategic fulcrum ports" to enhance logistics support in the region. This topic, often referred to as the "string of pearls theory", has generated a lot of heat and noise. Such bases along the coast of the Indian Ocean - whether dual use or purely military - would undeniably greatly aid the PLAN`s ability to operate so far from home. Becker assessed, "Over the past decade, the PLAN has proven capable of sustaining small groups of vessels in the Indian Ocean for long periods of time. However, though a three-ship taskforce is sufficient for the PLAN`s counterpiracy needs in peacetime, defending access to Indian Ocean SLOCs in a conflict would require a much larger and more sustained force, and the PLAN has only a limited number of replenishment ships capable of supporting far-seas operations." A shortage of replenishment ships (currently eight Type 903/903A and two Type 901 vessels) could force China to utilize its massive commercial fleet, one of the largest in the world. Becker indeed noted: "Beijing has already taken steps so that the fleet can better support PLAN activities. For example, it has promulgated regulations requiring certain civilian vessels - including roll-on/roll-off vessels, tankers and container ships - be built to military specifications, theoretically facilitating their future use by the navy with few if any modifications. In September 2016, China enacted the Law of the People`s Republic of China on National Defense Transportation, which improves the process for military requisition of civilian transportation assets during wartime, natural disasters, emergencies or `special circumstances`, both domestically and abroad."Chinese commercial vessels have taken part in maritime exercises, meaning that an entity such as COSCO could easily be called upon to support the PLAN in the Indian Ocean to augment naval capabilities. Furthermore, Chinese state-owned companies own or operate port facilities around the region (including Djibouti, Egypt, Malaysia, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka and the UAE), and they could provide some degree of sustainment. In line with other analysis, Becker concluded: "...Other than its base in Djibouti, the PLAN does not, at present, appear to have arrangements with any other country in the region that would allow it to preposition specialized military equipment or technicians required to use that equipment, even in port facilities owned or operated by Chinese state-owned firms. Host governments whose ports do service PLAN vessels during a conflict, or allow the PLA to preposition military equipment on their territory, could possibly be dragged into the conflict as a co-belligerent." Yet China has slightly improved its posture by developing more comprehensive naval facilities farther south within China - including an aircraft carrier base at Yulin on Hainan Island, thus speeding up the PLAN`s ability to deploy assets to the Indian Ocean. China could also surge platforms from reclaimed reef bases in the South China Sea, as they can harbor ships and accommodate aircraft such as fighters, maritime patrol and aerial refueling types. This would give the PLA a quicker response to any contingency in the Malacca Strait, for instance.It would make sense for China to establish a second overseas military base at the eastern end of the Indian Ocean, to help defend access to the region. For many years, locations such as Myanmar have been discussed. Or even farther east, China`s military relationship with Phnom Penh has become quite exclusive in recent years. In 2019 there were media reports that China may have forged an agreement for the PLAN to use a Cambodian naval base, plus a large and mysterious airport is being constructed in Cambodia. Speculation is rife that the PLA could one day use the latter, even though Cambodia is some 1,000km from the Malacca Strait.Becker suggested another possibility, that Beijing may simply be content to emulate the Soviet Union`s past presence in the Indian Ocean. The Cold War power sought only limited SLOC protection and localized sea denial, as opposed to outright sea control. This could represent an achievable solution for China too.

Can China dominate the Indian Ocean?

With millions of Americans out of work and at risk of losing their homes, Congress’ failure to quickly reach a deal that would send more money to struggling families is increasingly frustrating those hit by the economic effects of the coronavirus pandemic.

Lawmakers on Saturday were stymied over a proposed stimulus package, and the clock was ticking. Millions of people are at risk of being kicked out of their homes after Dec. 31, when a federal moratorium on evictions ends, and as many as 12 million people could lose unemployment benefits Dec. 26, when two emergency programs expire.

For Renée DeCarlo, 49, an artist in San Francisco, the near-daily calls about her credit card payments make it impossible to forget about a mountain of debt that keeps piling higher. She has had to keep her studio closed to the public, and she sold her car to try to stay on top of expenses. Now, as the holidays approach, she is selling as much of her art as she can and using the money — coupled with unemployment benefits — to support her two teenage children.

“I need that money to live on,” she said. “I’ve been trading art for rent.”

DeCarlo is hoping that Congress makes an effort to forgive some of the debt that has piled up for her and others as the pandemic drags on.

“Getting those calls just makes you feel worse and sort of inadequate, as a person and as a society,” DeCarlo said. “I don’t want to be pulling the economy down. I’m trying to bring things up in what I do every day.”

Lawmakers were working Saturday to strike an agreement on a $900 billion stimulus package before Sunday night. The plan under discussion would extend unemployment benefits and issue stimulus checks of $600, half of what the government sent to many Americans in April and an amount that many say would be gone — spent on necessities — as soon as it arrived.

“It’s a joke,” said Chant’e Catt, an off-campus housing coordinator at Humboldt State University in Northern California. “It’s a slap in the face, and it’s really disrespectful for somebody who lost their job.”

Aid organizations that have been flooded with people seeking help amid the pandemic are also anxiously waiting for Congress to act.

The Gleaners Community Food Bank in Detroit ramped up its distribution this year as the virus spread and families lost jobs, delivering food to 150,000 households in the Detroit area each month, 50,000 more than normal. Now those who work to distribute 6.7 million pounds of food each month say they could lose half of it if a federal farm-to-family program enacted during the pandemic expires.

“Michigan winters aren’t the greatest, which means that heating bills are going up, and on top of that, there are people working or learning from home, so their heating bills are increasing as well,” said Stacy Averill, vice president of community giving at Gleaners. “All of those things are coming together now and bringing additional anxiety to households as they try to navigate trying to put food on the table.”

In Cleveland, people were lining up Saturday outside of a house in the city’s trendy Ohio City neighborhood to get donated toys for their young relatives. The house serves as a food pantry for most of the year but doubles as a toy center during the Christmas season.

Among those putting her name on the list for toys was a retiree who said she was looking out for her grandchildren. “I’ve never had to get Christmas toys for free like this,” she said. “Sometimes you have to swallow your pride.”

The woman said a $600 check could help her family stay afloat. “Right now we are trying to live month to month, and a little bit more money might help us get to the next month,” she said.

David Caron, 22, recently got a job at a J. Crew store in Boston after working part time for DoorDash, the delivery service, and receiving some unemployment payments. He said a stimulus check of $600 would not be nearly enough to help him recover from the pandemic’s toll.

“We bail out companies and corporations all the time,” a frustrated Caron said Saturday. “When it comes to helping the individual, we are left to hang dry.”

With millions of Americans out of work and at risk of losing their homes, Congress’ failure to quickly reach a deal that would send more money to struggling families is increasingly frustrating those hit by the economic effects of the coronavirus pandemic.

With millions of Americans out of work and at risk of losing their homes, Congress’ failure to quickly reach a deal that would send more money to struggling families is increasingly frustrating those hit by the economic effects of the coronavirus pandemic. Lawmakers on Saturday were stymied over a proposed stimulus package, and the clock was ticking. Millions of people are at risk of being kicked out of their homes after Dec. 31, when a federal moratorium on evictions ends, and as many as 12 million people could lose unemployment benefits Dec. 26, when two emergency programs expire. For Renée DeCarlo, 49, an artist in San Francisco, the near-daily calls about her credit card payments make it impossible to forget about a mountain of debt that keeps piling higher. She has had to keep her studio closed to the public, and she sold her car to try to stay on top of expenses. Now, as the holidays approach, she is selling as much of her art as she can and using the money — coupled with unemployment benefits — to support her two teenage children. “I need that money to live on,” she said. “I’ve been trading art for rent.” DeCarlo is hoping that Congress makes an effort to forgive some of the debt that has piled up for her and others as the pandemic drags on. “Getting those calls just makes you feel worse and sort of inadequate, as a person and as a society,” DeCarlo said. “I don’t want to be pulling the economy down. I’m trying to bring things up in what I do every day.” Lawmakers were working Saturday to strike an agreement on a $900 billion stimulus package before Sunday night. The plan under discussion would extend unemployment benefits and issue stimulus checks of $600, half of what the government sent to many Americans in April and an amount that many say would be gone — spent on necessities — as soon as it arrived. “It’s a joke,” said Chant’e Catt, an off-campus housing coordinator at Humboldt State University in Northern California. “It’s a slap in the face, and it’s really disrespectful for somebody who lost their job.” Aid organizations that have been flooded with people seeking help amid the pandemic are also anxiously waiting for Congress to act. The Gleaners Community Food Bank in Detroit ramped up its distribution this year as the virus spread and families lost jobs, delivering food to 150,000 households in the Detroit area each month, 50,000 more than normal. Now those who work to distribute 6.7 million pounds of food each month say they could lose half of it if a federal farm-to-family program enacted during the pandemic expires. “Michigan winters aren’t the greatest, which means that heating bills are going up, and on top of that, there are people working or learning from home, so their heating bills are increasing as well,” said Stacy Averill, vice president of community giving at Gleaners. “All of those things are coming together now and bringing additional anxiety to households as they try to navigate trying to put food on the table.” In Cleveland, people were lining up Saturday outside of a house in the city’s trendy Ohio City neighborhood to get donated toys for their young relatives. The house serves as a food pantry for most of the year but doubles as a toy center during the Christmas season. Among those putting her name on the list for toys was a retiree who said she was looking out for her grandchildren. “I’ve never had to get Christmas toys for free like this,” she said. “Sometimes you have to swallow your pride.” The woman said a $600 check could help her family stay afloat. “Right now we are trying to live month to month, and a little bit more money might help us get to the next month,” she said. David Caron, 22, recently got a job at a J. Crew store in Boston after working part time for DoorDash, the delivery service, and receiving some unemployment payments. He said a stimulus check of $600 would not be nearly enough to help him recover from the pandemic’s toll. “We bail out companies and corporations all the time,” a frustrated Caron said Saturday. “When it comes to helping the individual, we are left to hang dry.”

Americans scraping by say they fear a second stimulus won’t be enough

Imagine you’re a pepper plant. You need water and nutrients. Luckily, you can grow roots that grab that stuff from the soil and pipe it back to you. So far, so good.

There’s just one problem. Your neighbor — also a pepper plant — needs the same things. There’s only so much to go around. What’s your move?

For years, researchers have looked into the tangled problem of root competition, coming up with diverse and sometimes conflicting findings about how plants strategically arrange their roots when the dirt gets crowded. A paper published this month in Science details a new model that appears to reconcile this confusion by accounting for the spatial distribution of roots along with their prevalence. In initial tests performed by the paper’s authors, real plants played by the rules the model laid out.

It takes energy and materials to grow and maintain a root. Ideally, a plant will get more resources out of its roots than it spends on their construction and upkeep. Plants can sense the concentration of water and nutrients in particular soil patches, and apportion roots accordingly, to maximize their yield.

For a solitary plant, this is simple enough. But when other plants are around, the calculus changes. Researchers have borrowed tools from game theory — a way to analyze and optimize decision making, used by everyone from financial analysts to actual gamers — to try to figure out exactly how.

One model, published in 2001, predicted that plants growing close together end up in a “tragedy of the commons,” with each individual in a shared space making more roots than a lone plant would, but also getting fewer rewards. Some real-world experiments matched this model, finding that plants with neighbors did create more root mass than those growing on their own.

But other studies have found the opposite: that competing plants invested less in roots. And others still found no appreciable difference.

“There was all this controversy,” said Ciro Cabal, a doctoral student in ecology and evolutionary biology at Princeton University and the lead author of the new study.

Cabal wondered whether that model, and others like it, might be missing a component. They treated all roots the same, no matter their distance from the plant’s stem. But in reality, the farther a root grows from the plant, the more costly it is to produce and maintain.

So he and his co-authors built a new model to account for that. “We incorporated space,” he said. “And we found this new theory.”

In their model, a plant facing competition will underproduce those more expensive, wide-ranging roots that might otherwise overlap with a neighbor’s. But it will overproduce roots closer to home, effectively consolidating power and preventing any “I drink your milkshake” style plays.

Whether plants with neighbors over- or underproduce roots compared with solo plants depends on how far apart the two competing plants are, Cabal said. So those findings from previous studies that seemed to contradict each other are “all possible according to our model.”

Next, the researchers brought this hypothetical math down to earth. They planted sweet peppers in containers — some alone, and some in twos about four inches apart — and stained the roots of the rival peppers with dyes, to differentiate them. After a few months, they mapped out where and how densely each plant’s roots had grown, and found it matched the model. The paired peppers grew more roots that stayed close to home, and fewer that went farther away, compared with the peppers that had containers to themselves.

The new model “provides an excellent baseline prediction for how root systems might behave in the presence of neighbors,” and brings together hypotheses and findings that previously seemed contradictory, said Jochen Schenk, a professor of plant biology at California State University Fullerton who was not involved in the study.

But he cautions against overgeneralizing about its findings.

“I would not accept the claim that a single test with one plant species can tell us what plants will do in general,” he said.

Different species may respond to each other in different ways. Recent research also suggests that other life-forms, such as fungi and microbes, bear on how some plants interact underground.

Even Cabal did not expect that his model and experiment would correspond so neatly. While he expects real-world cases to challenge the particulars of the model, “I truly believe that the principle we present is true,” he said. Next, he plans to try his experiment in the wild, on a few species of Mediterranean shrub.

If this strategy does turn out to be widely used by plants, people could use it to incorporate more accurate estimates of plant biomass into climate models, Cabal said. And if it’s possible, breeding some of the competitiveness out of plants could also improve yields in agriculture. Farmers are often stymied by self-interested crops that put their energy into roots instead of fruits.

Cabal and his co-authors also modeled what he called a “cooperative solution” to the nutrient-sharing problem. In this scenario, “each plant is not being selfish — it’s not maximizing its own reward,” he said. Instead, the plants collectively position their roots to produce the most nutrient uptake for the least investment overall.

Alas, experimentally, “we didn’t find it in these plants,” he said.

For now, it’s every pepper for itself.

Imagine you’re a pepper plant. You need water and nutrients. Luckily, you can grow roots that grab that stuff from the soil and pipe it back to you. So far, so good.

Imagine you’re a pepper plant. You need water and nutrients. Luckily, you can grow roots that grab that stuff from the soil and pipe it back to you. So far, so good. There’s just one problem. Your neighbor — also a pepper plant — needs the same things. There’s only so much to go around. What’s your move? For years, researchers have looked into the tangled problem of root competition, coming up with diverse and sometimes conflicting findings about how plants strategically arrange their roots when the dirt gets crowded. A paper published this month in Science details a new model that appears to reconcile this confusion by accounting for the spatial distribution of roots along with their prevalence. In initial tests performed by the paper’s authors, real plants played by the rules the model laid out. It takes energy and materials to grow and maintain a root. Ideally, a plant will get more resources out of its roots than it spends on their construction and upkeep. Plants can sense the concentration of water and nutrients in particular soil patches, and apportion roots accordingly, to maximize their yield. For a solitary plant, this is simple enough. But when other plants are around, the calculus changes. Researchers have borrowed tools from game theory — a way to analyze and optimize decision making, used by everyone from financial analysts to actual gamers — to try to figure out exactly how. One model, published in 2001, predicted that plants growing close together end up in a “tragedy of the commons,” with each individual in a shared space making more roots than a lone plant would, but also getting fewer rewards. Some real-world experiments matched this model, finding that plants with neighbors did create more root mass than those growing on their own. But other studies have found the opposite: that competing plants invested less in roots. And others still found no appreciable difference. “There was all this controversy,” said Ciro Cabal, a doctoral student in ecology and evolutionary biology at Princeton University and the lead author of the new study. Cabal wondered whether that model, and others like it, might be missing a component. They treated all roots the same, no matter their distance from the plant’s stem. But in reality, the farther a root grows from the plant, the more costly it is to produce and maintain. So he and his co-authors built a new model to account for that. “We incorporated space,” he said. “And we found this new theory.” In their model, a plant facing competition will underproduce those more expensive, wide-ranging roots that might otherwise overlap with a neighbor’s. But it will overproduce roots closer to home, effectively consolidating power and preventing any “I drink your milkshake” style plays. Whether plants with neighbors over- or underproduce roots compared with solo plants depends on how far apart the two competing plants are, Cabal said. So those findings from previous studies that seemed to contradict each other are “all possible according to our model.” Next, the researchers brought this hypothetical math down to earth. They planted sweet peppers in containers — some alone, and some in twos about four inches apart — and stained the roots of the rival peppers with dyes, to differentiate them. After a few months, they mapped out where and how densely each plant’s roots had grown, and found it matched the model. The paired peppers grew more roots that stayed close to home, and fewer that went farther away, compared with the peppers that had containers to themselves. The new model “provides an excellent baseline prediction for how root systems might behave in the presence of neighbors,” and brings together hypotheses and findings that previously seemed contradictory, said Jochen Schenk, a professor of plant biology at California State University Fullerton who was not involved in the study. But he cautions against overgeneralizing about its findings. “I would not accept the claim that a single test with one plant species can tell us what plants will do in general,” he said. Different species may respond to each other in different ways. Recent research also suggests that other life-forms, such as fungi and microbes, bear on how some plants interact underground. Even Cabal did not expect that his model and experiment would correspond so neatly. While he expects real-world cases to challenge the particulars of the model, “I truly believe that the principle we present is true,” he said. Next, he plans to try his experiment in the wild, on a few species of Mediterranean shrub. If this strategy does turn out to be widely used by plants, people could use it to incorporate more accurate estimates of plant biomass into climate models, Cabal said. And if it’s possible, breeding some of the competitiveness out of plants could also improve yields in agriculture. Farmers are often stymied by self-interested crops that put their energy into roots instead of fruits. Cabal and his co-authors also modeled what he called a “cooperative solution” to the nutrient-sharing problem. In this scenario, “each plant is not being selfish — it’s not maximizing its own reward,” he said. Instead, the plants collectively position their roots to produce the most nutrient uptake for the least investment overall. Alas, experimentally, “we didn’t find it in these plants,” he said. For now, it’s every pepper for itself.

How selfish are plants? Let’s do some root analysis

Author

Zee News Rajasthan

Editor

Manas Joshi

Home

Live Tv

Latest

World

India

Business

Entertainment

Sports

Opinions

Videos

Photos

Gravitas

Lifestyle

Science

Tech

Rajasthan News in Hindi: In-depth coverage of Rajasthan Crime, Political News, Education, Rajasthan Weather Update and Latest Rajasthan News on Zee News Rajasthan.