One of the significant findings of India’s Chandrayaan-1 mission was to detect the presence of water on the moon’s surface. A probe onboard India’s Chandrayaan-2 orbiter (second lunar mission) has not only validated the breakthrough made by its predecessor but also paved the way for future lunar exploration.&nbsp;

According to ISRO scientists who were associated with both the Lunar projects, the data from Chandrayaan-2 would be used to build a lunar water map, which would further aid upcoming missions to the moon.&nbsp;

The initial evidence for surface water came from the NASA-provided Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) experiment carried on the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft. While this payload from NASA also detected evidence of water at the lunar poles, its finding was under question, owing to the limited wavelength that M3 (an imaging spectrometer) covered. The basic function of a Spectrometer is to take in light (reflected from a surface) and provide a graph of the output. However, in the case of the M3, its wavelength of 0.7 to 3 microns was not sufficient to ascertain and affirm the detection of water on the moon.

"With M3, we had reached the tip of the iceberg, but we needed double and triple confirmation. In a breakthrough for us, the data from the old M3 sensor and the new Chandrayaan 2 sensor matched. The orbiter of Chandrayaan-2 has a 5 micron (wider) spectrometer, hence it unambiguously confirms the findings of Chandrayaan-1, "Dr Mylswamy Annadurai, Former Director of ISRO’s UR Rao Satellite Center, told WION.&nbsp;

He added that, with its nearly 7-year long mission life, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter (in lunar orbit since Sept 2019) has the potential to create a moon terrain map that depicts the rocks, craters, ice deposits, water traces etc. Fondly known as India's ‘Moon Man ’, Dr Annadurai expressed hope that such a lunar map would help upcoming Indian lunar exploration missions and eventually the larger global scientific community.&nbsp;

"The spectrometer on Chandrayaan-2 can detect the presence of water (H2O) molecules and also measure the 
Oxygen-Hydrogen atoms are held together as Hydroxide (OH). In the new spectrometer images, the dips on the graph are visible, DR. A S Kiran Kumar, former Chairman of ISRO, told WION.&nbsp;

According to him, the separation of wavelengths in the 3.1 and 3.2-micron regions helped distinguish between water and hydrogen.&nbsp;

Water is detected as water molecules and hydroxides are found in minerals and hydrates. ISRO’s orbiter can map almost the entire moon (from its 100km altitude orbit) and more data can be collected from repeated observations, he adds. This offers good prospects for scientific analysis and studies, given that water (H2O) and hydroxide (OH) don’t exist in isolation on the lunar surface. Generally, water is found in the molecule form, whereas hydroxides are found as moisture in minerals and hydrates.

India’s second lunar mission, Chandrayaan-2 (launched in 2019), was only partially successful, as the lander ‘Vikram’ could not descend on the South Pole of the moon, as intended. Instead, the lander and the rover housed in it crashed landed, thus denying the opportunity to conduct a short-term, on-surface analysis. However, the orbiter, which circles the moon at an altitude of 100km and an approximate speed of 1km/s, continues to function and is expected to function for many more years. India’s first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, was launched in 2008 and it functioned for almost a year before communication was lost with the orbiter.&nbsp;

One of the significant findings of India’s Chandrayaan-1 mission was to detect the presence of water on the moon’s surface. A probe onboard India’s Chandrayaan-2 orbiter (second lunar mission) has not only validated the breakthrough made by its predecessor but also paved the way for future lunar exploration.

One of the significant findings of India’s Chandrayaan-1 mission was to detect the presence of water on the moon’s surface. A probe onboard India’s Chandrayaan-2 orbiter (second lunar mission) has not only validated the breakthrough made by its predecessor but also paved the way for future lunar exploration. According to ISRO scientists who were associated with both the Lunar projects, the data from Chandrayaan-2 would be used to build a lunar water map, which would further aid upcoming missions to the moon. The initial evidence for surface water came from the NASA-provided Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) experiment carried on the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft. While this payload from NASA also detected evidence of water at the lunar poles, its finding was under question, owing to the limited wavelength that M3 (an imaging spectrometer) covered. The basic function of a Spectrometer is to take in light (reflected from a surface) and provide a graph of the output. However, in the case of the M3, its wavelength of 0.7 to 3 microns was not sufficient to ascertain and affirm the detection of water on the moon. "With M3, we had reached the tip of the iceberg, but we needed double and triple confirmation. In a breakthrough for us, the data from the old M3 sensor and the new Chandrayaan 2 sensor matched. The orbiter of Chandrayaan-2 has a 5 micron (wider) spectrometer, hence it unambiguously confirms the findings of Chandrayaan-1, "Dr Mylswamy Annadurai, Former Director of ISRO’s UR Rao Satellite Center, told WION. He added that, with its nearly 7-year long mission life, the Chandrayaan 2 orbiter (in lunar orbit since Sept 2019) has the potential to create a moon terrain map that depicts the rocks, craters, ice deposits, water traces etc. Fondly known as India's ‘Moon Man ’, Dr Annadurai expressed hope that such a lunar map would help upcoming Indian lunar exploration missions and eventually the larger global scientific community. "The spectrometer on Chandrayaan-2 can detect the presence of water (H2O) molecules and also measure the Oxygen-Hydrogen atoms are held together as Hydroxide (OH). In the new spectrometer images, the dips on the graph are visible, DR. A S Kiran Kumar, former Chairman of ISRO, told WION. According to him, the separation of wavelengths in the 3.1 and 3.2-micron regions helped distinguish between water and hydrogen. Water is detected as water molecules and hydroxides are found in minerals and hydrates. ISRO’s orbiter can map almost the entire moon (from its 100km altitude orbit) and more data can be collected from repeated observations, he adds. This offers good prospects for scientific analysis and studies, given that water (H2O) and hydroxide (OH) don’t exist in isolation on the lunar surface. Generally, water is found in the molecule form, whereas hydroxides are found as moisture in minerals and hydrates. India’s second lunar mission, Chandrayaan-2 (launched in 2019), was only partially successful, as the lander ‘Vikram’ could not descend on the South Pole of the moon, as intended. Instead, the lander and the rover housed in it crashed landed, thus denying the opportunity to conduct a short-term, on-surface analysis. However, the orbiter, which circles the moon at an altitude of 100km and an approximate speed of 1km/s, continues to function and is expected to function for many more years. India’s first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, was launched in 2008 and it functioned for almost a year before communication was lost with the orbiter.

Chandrayaan-2: India’s orbiter validates earlier finding of water on the lunar surface

The fact that the Moon has water on its surface is widely known. But now, latest observations say that water may be more widespread on the lunar surface than previously thought. These water molecules are trapped within mineral grains on the lunar surface. And more water may be there in ice patches on the part of the Moon that is permanently in the shadow.

While research 11 years ago indicated the water was relatively widespread in small amounts on the moon, a team of scientists is now reporting the first unambiguous detection of water molecules on the lunar surface. At the same time, another team is reporting that the moon possesses roughly 15,000 square miles (40,000 square kilometers) of permanent shadows that potentially could harbor hidden pockets of water in the form of ice.

Water is a precious resource and a relatively plentiful lunar presence could prove important to future astronaut and robotic missions seeking to extract and utilize water for purposes such as a drinking supply or a fuel ingredient.

A team of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland has now detected molecular water on the Moon's surface. These molecules are trapped within natural glasses or between debris grains.

Previous observations have suffered from ambiguity between water and its molecular cousin hydroxyl, but the new detection used a method that yielded unambiguous findings.

Also Read | <a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/hubble-telescope-gives-closer-look-at-rare-asteroid-worth-70000-times-the-global-economy-338984">Hubble telescope gives closer look at rare asteroid worth 70,000 times the global economy</a> 
 
The only way for this water to survive on the sunlit lunar surfaces where it was observed was to be embedded within mineral grains, protecting it from the frigid and foreboding environment. The researchers used data from the SOFIA airborne observatory, a Boeing 747SP aircraft modified to carry a telescope.

“A lot of people think that the detection I’ve made is water ice, which is not true. It’s just the water molecules - because they’re so spread out they don’t interact with each other to form water ice or even liquid water,” Honniball said.

The second study, also published in the journal Nature Astronomy, focused upon so-called cold traps on the moon, regions of its surface that exist in a state of perpetual darkness where temperatures are below about negative 260 degrees Fahrenheit (negative 163 degrees Celsius). That is cold enough that frozen water can remain stable for billions of years.

Using data from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft, researchers led by planetary scientist Paul Hayne of the University of Colorado, Boulder detected what may be tens of billions of small shadows, many no bigger than a small coin. Most are located in the polar regions.

“Our research shows that a multitude of previously unknown regions of the moon could harbor water ice,” Hayne said. “Our results suggest that water could be much more widespread in the moon’s polar regions than previously thought, making it easier to access, extract and analyze.”

NASA is planning a return of astronauts to the moon, a mission envisioned as paving the way for a later journey carrying a crew to Mars. Accessible sources where water can be harvested on the moon would beneficial to those endeavors.

“Water is not just constrained to the polar region. It’s more spread out than we thought it was,” Honniball said.

Another mystery that remains unsolved is the source of the lunar water.

“The origin of water on the moon is one of the big-picture questions we are trying to answer through this and other research,” Hayne said. “Currently, the major contenders are comets, asteroids or small interplanetary dust particles, the solar wind, and the moon itself through outgassing from volcanic eruptions.”

Earth is a wet world, with vast salty oceans, large freshwater lakes and ice caps that serve as water reservoirs.

“As our closest planetary companion, understanding the origins of water on the moon can also shed light on the origins of Earth’s water - still an open question in planetary science,” Hayne added.

(With Reuters inputs)

The fact that the Moon has water on its surface is widely known. But now, latest observations say that water may be more widespread on the lunar surface than previously thought.

The fact that the Moon has water on its surface is widely known. But now, latest observations say that water may be more widespread on the lunar surface than previously thought. These water molecules are trapped within mineral grains on the lunar surface. And more water may be there in ice patches on the part of the Moon that is permanently in the shadow. While research 11 years ago indicated the water was relatively widespread in small amounts on the moon, a team of scientists is now reporting the first unambiguous detection of water molecules on the lunar surface. At the same time, another team is reporting that the moon possesses roughly 15,000 square miles (40,000 square kilometers) of permanent shadows that potentially could harbor hidden pockets of water in the form of ice. Water is a precious resource and a relatively plentiful lunar presence could prove important to future astronaut and robotic missions seeking to extract and utilize water for purposes such as a drinking supply or a fuel ingredient. A team of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland has now detected molecular water on the Moon's surface. These molecules are trapped within natural glasses or between debris grains. Previous observations have suffered from ambiguity between water and its molecular cousin hydroxyl, but the new detection used a method that yielded unambiguous findings. Also Read | Hubble telescope gives closer look at rare asteroid worth 70,000 times the global economy The only way for this water to survive on the sunlit lunar surfaces where it was observed was to be embedded within mineral grains, protecting it from the frigid and foreboding environment. The researchers used data from the SOFIA airborne observatory, a Boeing 747SP aircraft modified to carry a telescope. “A lot of people think that the detection I’ve made is water ice, which is not true. It’s just the water molecules - because they’re so spread out they don’t interact with each other to form water ice or even liquid water,” Honniball said. The second study, also published in the journal Nature Astronomy, focused upon so-called cold traps on the moon, regions of its surface that exist in a state of perpetual darkness where temperatures are below about negative 260 degrees Fahrenheit (negative 163 degrees Celsius). That is cold enough that frozen water can remain stable for billions of years. Using data from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft, researchers led by planetary scientist Paul Hayne of the University of Colorado, Boulder detected what may be tens of billions of small shadows, many no bigger than a small coin. Most are located in the polar regions. “Our research shows that a multitude of previously unknown regions of the moon could harbor water ice,” Hayne said. “Our results suggest that water could be much more widespread in the moon’s polar regions than previously thought, making it easier to access, extract and analyze.” NASA is planning a return of astronauts to the moon, a mission envisioned as paving the way for a later journey carrying a crew to Mars. Accessible sources where water can be harvested on the moon would beneficial to those endeavors. “Water is not just constrained to the polar region. It’s more spread out than we thought it was,” Honniball said. Another mystery that remains unsolved is the source of the lunar water. “The origin of water on the moon is one of the big-picture questions we are trying to answer through this and other research,” Hayne said. “Currently, the major contenders are comets, asteroids or small interplanetary dust particles, the solar wind, and the moon itself through outgassing from volcanic eruptions.” Earth is a wet world, with vast salty oceans, large freshwater lakes and ice caps that serve as water reservoirs. “As our closest planetary companion, understanding the origins of water on the moon can also shed light on the origins of Earth’s water - still an open question in planetary science,” Hayne added. (With Reuters inputs)

Water more widespread on Moon than previously thought

A California-based aviation and aerospace company is in the process of creating an army of autonomous robots that could be sent to the <a href="https://www.wionews.com/india-news/chandrayaan-2-nasa-satellite-finds-indias-vikram-moon-lander-releases-images-of-impact-site-265811">moon</a> and mine its surface.&nbsp;

Pasadena, California situated OffWorld is a company which fans the idea of a future of robots in space. Before NASA carries out its <a href="https://www.wionews.com/india-news/new-lunar-mission-chandrayaan-3-to-launch-in-november-2020-isro-271367">manned mission to the moon</a>, the idea is to have these robots up on the lunar surface to do the prep.

What's special about these robots is their ability to take autonomous decisions and carry out tasks on their own without needing any commands or timely supervision.&nbsp;

The robots are based on the existing technologies like mining on the earth surface and would be able to carry out tasks that have never been entrusted on machines before.&nbsp;

The company's vision is to create colonies of smart robots that would "under human supervision" aim to turn "the inner solar system into a better, gentler, greener place for life and civilization," as stated on OffWorld official website.&nbsp;

The company sees its many smart robots as the enabler of human expansion beyond planet earth. It has previously built rocket engines, spacecraft and launched several satellites. 
&nbsp;

A California-based aviation and aerospace company is in the process of creating an army of autonomous robots that could be sent to the moon and mine its surface.

A California-based aviation and aerospace company is in the process of creating an army of autonomous robots that could be sent to the moon and mine its surface. Pasadena, California situated OffWorld is a company which fans the idea of a future of robots in space. Before NASA carries out its manned mission to the moon, the idea is to have these robots up on the lunar surface to do the prep. What's special about these robots is their ability to take autonomous decisions and carry out tasks on their own without needing any commands or timely supervision. The robots are based on the existing technologies like mining on the earth surface and would be able to carry out tasks that have never been entrusted on machines before. The company's vision is to create colonies of smart robots that would "under human supervision" aim to turn "the inner solar system into a better, gentler, greener place for life and civilization," as stated on OffWorld official website. The company sees its many smart robots as the enabler of human expansion beyond planet earth. It has previously built rocket engines, spacecraft and launched several satellites.

Smart robots in the offing to help mine the moon

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) on Wednesday released new three-dimensional images from the moon`s surface captured by the Chandrayaan -2.

The images of a crater from the lunar surface was captured by the Terrain Mapping Camera-2 aboard Chandrayaan-2.

"Have a look of 3D view of a crater imaged by TMC-2 of #Chandrayaan2. TMC-2 provides images at 5m spatial resolution &amp; stereo triplets (fore, nadir and aft views) for preparing DEM of the complete lunar surface," ISRO tweeted from its official handle.

The triplet images from TMC-2 when processed into Digital Elevation Models, enable mapping of surface landform morphologies.

These include - Craters (formed by impactors), Lava tubes (potential sites for future habitability), Rilles (furrows formed by lava channels or collapsed lava tubes), Dorsa or wrinkle ridges (formed mostly in Mare regions depicting cooling of and contraction of basaltic lava), Graben structures (depicts the structural dislocations on the lunar surface) and Lunar Domes/ Cones (denoting localized vents of past volcanism on the Moon).&nbsp;

 
&nbsp;

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) on Wednesday released new three-dimensional images from the moon`s surface captured by the Chandrayaan -2. The images of a crater from the lunar surface was captured by the Terrain Mapping Camera-2 aboard Chandrayaan-2.

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) on Wednesday released new three-dimensional images from the moon`s surface captured by the Chandrayaan -2. The images of a crater from the lunar surface was captured by the Terrain Mapping Camera-2 aboard Chandrayaan-2. "Have a look of 3D view of a crater imaged by TMC-2 of #Chandrayaan2. TMC-2 provides images at 5m spatial resolution & stereo triplets (fore, nadir and aft views) for preparing DEM of the complete lunar surface," ISRO tweeted from its official handle. The triplet images from TMC-2 when processed into Digital Elevation Models, enable mapping of surface landform morphologies. These include - Craters (formed by impactors), Lava tubes (potential sites for future habitability), Rilles (furrows formed by lava channels or collapsed lava tubes), Dorsa or wrinkle ridges (formed mostly in Mare regions depicting cooling of and contraction of basaltic lava), Graben structures (depicts the structural dislocations on the lunar surface) and Lunar Domes/ Cones (denoting localized vents of past volcanism on the Moon).

Chandrayaan-2 sends new pictures of moon's surface

The Indian Research Space Organisation (ISRO) on Thursday released the first image of the surface of the moon captured by the Imaging Infrared Spectrometer (IIRS) payload on-board Chandrayaan 2.

"See the first illuminated image of the lunar surface acquired by #Chandrayaan2's IIRS payload. IIRS is designed to measure reflected sunlight from the lunar surface in narrow and contiguous spectral channels," ISRO tweeted along with the picture on its account.

The image covers part of the lunar farside in the northern hemisphere. A few prominent craters (Sommerfield, Stebbins and Kirkwood) are seen in the image. The IIRS on-board Chandrayaan-2 is designed to measure the reflected sunlight and emitted part of Moon light from the lunar surface in narrow and contiguous spectral channels (bands) ranging from ~800 - 5000 nanometre (0.8-5.0 micrometre (um)), ISRO said in a statement.

It uses a grating to split and disperse the reflected sunlight (and emitted component) into different spectral bands.

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<a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/ISRO?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#ISRO</a> 
See the first illuminated image of the lunar surface acquired by <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/Chandrayaan2?src=hash&amp;ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#Chandrayaan2</a>’s IIRS payload. IIRS is designed to measure reflected sunlight from the lunar surface in narrow and contiguous spectral channels. 
 
For details visit:<a href="https://t.co/C3STg4H79S">https://t.co/C3STg4H79S</a> <a href="https://t.co/95N2MpebY4">pic.twitter.com/95N2MpebY4</a>
— ISRO (@isro) <a href="https://twitter.com/isro/status/1184808246273400832?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">October 17, 2019</a></blockquote>
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"The major objective of IIRS is to understand the origin and evolution of the Moon in a geologic context by mapping the lunar surface mineral and volatile composition using signatures in the reflected solar spectrum," the space agency said.

"Preliminary analysis suggests that IIRS could successfully measure the variations in the reflected solar radiation that bounces off the lunar surface from different kinds of surface types, namely, crater central peaks (example Stebbins), crater floors (example Stebbins and Sommerfield), very fresh reworked ejecta associated with small craterlets within the crater floor of a large crater (example Sommerfield) and also the sun-illuminated inner rims of craters (example Kirkwood)," ISRO added.

"The variations in the spectral radiance are primarily due to the mineralogical or compositional variations that exist in the lunar surface and also due to the effect of space weathering," the space agency further said.

Earlier this month, the ISRO had released images of the moon's surface clicked by Orbiter High-Resolution Camera (OHRC) on-board Chandrayaan-2.

The space agency had lost communication from its Lander Vikram which was supposed to soft-land on the far side of the moon on September 7.

The Lander successfully separated from Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter on September 2.

After revolving the Earth's orbit for nearly 23 days, the craft began its journey to the moon on August 14. The mission took off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on July 22.&nbsp;

The Indian Research Space Organisation (ISRO) on Thursday released the first image of the surface of the moon captured by the Imaging Infrared Spectrometer (IIRS) payload on-board Chandrayaan 2.

The Indian Research Space Organisation (ISRO) on Thursday released the first image of the surface of the moon captured by the Imaging Infrared Spectrometer (IIRS) payload on-board Chandrayaan 2. "See the first illuminated image of the lunar surface acquired by #Chandrayaan2's IIRS payload. IIRS is designed to measure reflected sunlight from the lunar surface in narrow and contiguous spectral channels," ISRO tweeted along with the picture on its account. The image covers part of the lunar farside in the northern hemisphere. A few prominent craters (Sommerfield, Stebbins and Kirkwood) are seen in the image. The IIRS on-board Chandrayaan-2 is designed to measure the reflected sunlight and emitted part of Moon light from the lunar surface in narrow and contiguous spectral channels (bands) ranging from ~800 - 5000 nanometre (0.8-5.0 micrometre (um)), ISRO said in a statement. It uses a grating to split and disperse the reflected sunlight (and emitted component) into different spectral bands. #ISRO See the first illuminated image of the lunar surface acquired by #Chandrayaan2’s IIRS payload. IIRS is designed to measure reflected sunlight from the lunar surface in narrow and contiguous spectral channels. For details visit:https://t.co/C3STg4H79S pic.twitter.com/95N2MpebY4 — ISRO (@isro) October 17, 2019 × "The major objective of IIRS is to understand the origin and evolution of the Moon in a geologic context by mapping the lunar surface mineral and volatile composition using signatures in the reflected solar spectrum," the space agency said. "Preliminary analysis suggests that IIRS could successfully measure the variations in the reflected solar radiation that bounces off the lunar surface from different kinds of surface types, namely, crater central peaks (example Stebbins), crater floors (example Stebbins and Sommerfield), very fresh reworked ejecta associated with small craterlets within the crater floor of a large crater (example Sommerfield) and also the sun-illuminated inner rims of craters (example Kirkwood)," ISRO added. "The variations in the spectral radiance are primarily due to the mineralogical or compositional variations that exist in the lunar surface and also due to the effect of space weathering," the space agency further said. Earlier this month, the ISRO had released images of the moon's surface clicked by Orbiter High-Resolution Camera (OHRC) on-board Chandrayaan-2. The space agency had lost communication from its Lander Vikram which was supposed to soft-land on the far side of the moon on September 7. The Lander successfully separated from Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter on September 2. After revolving the Earth's orbit for nearly 23 days, the craft began its journey to the moon on August 14. The mission took off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on July 22.

ISRO releases first illuminated image of lunar surface taken by Chandrayaan 2

Saturday marks 50 years since the historic first moon landing of 1969. On July 16, 1969, Apollo 11 lifted off from NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida, rocketing astronauts Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins into space. Four days later, on July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Aldrin landed Apollo 11's module, the Eagle, on the moon and stepped onto the lunar surface.

Timeline of space exploration 1969 - 2001

The first privately funded mission to the Moon has crashed on the lunar surface after the apparent failure of its main engine.

Israel's Beresheet spacecraft crashes on Moon due to main engine failure

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