The death of the first known exoplanet to survive the death of its star provides a glimpse of the solar system's future, as per a new study.

The death of the solar system has been a question regarding which there has been a lot of speculation.

Also read |&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/mystery-of-two-identical-galaxies-solved-420507" hreflang="en">Mystery of two 'identical galaxies' solved</a>

Research has stated that the Sun will become a burnt remnant of a white dwarf and will eventually fade into darkness. Will planets suffer a similar fate?&nbsp;

More than 4,500 exoplanets revolve around the Sun. But a new Jupiter-like exoplanet discovered by the Keck Observatory has provided a crucial glimpse into the snapshot of planetory survivors.

Astronomers observed the exoplanet's transformation from a ''red giant'' to a ''giant branch'' star and published their findings in Nature.

Also read |&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wionews.com/trending/astronauts-photo-from-space-reveals-a-strange-blue-glow-on-earth-420466" hreflang="en">Astronaut's photo from space reveals a strange blue glow on Earth</a>

The exoplanet would have been engulfed in the star's expansion if it had been closer to its parent star.

The findings of the study confirm that asteroids break up when they come in close contact with the surface of the white dwarf.

Aiding the hunt&nbsp;for extraterrestrial life, scientists have discovered a planet relatively close to the sun that has a rocky surface but an Earth-like atmosphere.

Called&nbsp;Gliese 486 b and it has been&nbsp;classified as a ‘super-Earth'. It resembles Venus as it is hot and dry.

The death of the first known exoplanet to survive the death of its star provides a glimpse of the solar system's future, as per a new study. The death of the solar system has been a question regarding which there has been a lot of speculation.

The death of the first known exoplanet to survive the death of its star provides a glimpse of the solar system's future, as per a new study. The death of the solar system has been a question regarding which there has been a lot of speculation. Also read | Mystery of two 'identical galaxies' solved Research has stated that the Sun will become a burnt remnant of a white dwarf and will eventually fade into darkness. Will planets suffer a similar fate? More than 4,500 exoplanets revolve around the Sun. But a new Jupiter-like exoplanet discovered by the Keck Observatory has provided a crucial glimpse into the snapshot of planetory survivors. Astronomers observed the exoplanet's transformation from a ''red giant'' to a ''giant branch'' star and published their findings in Nature. Also read | Astronaut's photo from space reveals a strange blue glow on Earth The exoplanet would have been engulfed in the star's expansion if it had been closer to its parent star. The findings of the study confirm that asteroids break up when they come in close contact with the surface of the white dwarf. Aiding the hunt for extraterrestrial life, scientists have discovered a planet relatively close to the sun that has a rocky surface but an Earth-like atmosphere. Called Gliese 486 b and it has been classified as a ‘super-Earth'. It resembles Venus as it is hot and dry.

First exoplanet to survive death of its star provides hint of solar system's future

Astronomers have identified a&nbsp;class of 'hycean' exoplanets that could prove fruitful in search of alien life as per a new study.

The existence of extraterrestrial life long has been one of the paramount questions of science.

Researchers have used probes and telescopes to seek “biosignatures,”&nbsp;indirect signs of life, on other planets and moons in our solar system and beyond.

Also read |&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/nasa-administrator-bill-nelson-hints-at-possibility-of-alien-life-in-new-interview-394678">NASA administrator Bill Nelson hints at possibility of alien life in new interview</a>

The&nbsp;exoplanets clad in a global ocean, with atmospheres rich in hydrogen, could host life as we know it.

Phosphine, a phosphorus atom with three hydrogen atoms attached,&nbsp;is highly toxic to people.

According to&nbsp;Nikku Madhusudhan from Cambridge University's Institute of Astronomy,&nbsp;"Some of the conditions in the oceans of these worlds could be similar to habitable conditions in Earth's oceans, i.e. similar temperatures and pressures, presence of liquid water and energy from the star."

"There are many open questions but this is only a first guess at this stage. The assumption is that if microbial aquatic life can form in these oceans in the same manner as they did on Earth then some of the biosignatures may also be common."

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Earth-based telescopes like those used in this research help scientists study the chemistry and other characteristics of celestial objects.

The research continues to either confirm the presence of life or find an alternative explanation.

Scientists have discovered more than 4,300 exoplanets. Some have been large gas planets akin to Jupiter. Others have been smaller, rocky Earth-like worlds, the kind considered candidates for harboring life, but currently available scientific instruments tell us little about their atmospheres.

Previously, researchers spotted a planet orbiting a star relatively near our solar system that may offer a prime opportunity to study the atmosphere of a rocky Earth-like alien world - the type of research that could aid the hunt for extraterrestrial life.

The planet, called Gliese 486 b and classified as a ‘super-Earth,’ is not itself a promising candidate as a refuge for life. It is thought to be inhospitable - hot and dry like Venus, with possible rivers of lava flowing on its surface.

But its proximity to Earth and its physical traits make it well suited for a study of its atmosphere with the next generation of space-borne and ground-based telescopes, starting with the James Webb Space Telescope that NASA has slated for an October launch.

These could give scientists data to be able to decipher the atmospheres of other exoplanets, planets beyond our solar system,&nbsp;including ones that may host life.

(With inputs from agencies)

Astronomers have identified a class of 'hycean' exoplanets that could prove fruitful in search of alien life as per a new study. The existence of extraterrestrial life long has been one of the paramount questions of science.

Astronomers have identified a class of 'hycean' exoplanets that could prove fruitful in search of alien life as per a new study. The existence of extraterrestrial life long has been one of the paramount questions of science. Researchers have used probes and telescopes to seek “biosignatures,” indirect signs of life, on other planets and moons in our solar system and beyond. Also read | NASA administrator Bill Nelson hints at possibility of alien life in new interview The exoplanets clad in a global ocean, with atmospheres rich in hydrogen, could host life as we know it. Phosphine, a phosphorus atom with three hydrogen atoms attached, is highly toxic to people. According to Nikku Madhusudhan from Cambridge University's Institute of Astronomy, "Some of the conditions in the oceans of these worlds could be similar to habitable conditions in Earth's oceans, i.e. similar temperatures and pressures, presence of liquid water and energy from the star." "There are many open questions but this is only a first guess at this stage. The assumption is that if microbial aquatic life can form in these oceans in the same manner as they did on Earth then some of the biosignatures may also be common." Earth-based telescopes like those used in this research help scientists study the chemistry and other characteristics of celestial objects. The research continues to either confirm the presence of life or find an alternative explanation. Scientists have discovered more than 4,300 exoplanets. Some have been large gas planets akin to Jupiter. Others have been smaller, rocky Earth-like worlds, the kind considered candidates for harboring life, but currently available scientific instruments tell us little about their atmospheres. Previously, researchers spotted a planet orbiting a star relatively near our solar system that may offer a prime opportunity to study the atmosphere of a rocky Earth-like alien world - the type of research that could aid the hunt for extraterrestrial life. The planet, called Gliese 486 b and classified as a ‘super-Earth,’ is not itself a promising candidate as a refuge for life. It is thought to be inhospitable - hot and dry like Venus, with possible rivers of lava flowing on its surface. But its proximity to Earth and its physical traits make it well suited for a study of its atmosphere with the next generation of space-borne and ground-based telescopes, starting with the James Webb Space Telescope that NASA has slated for an October launch. These could give scientists data to be able to decipher the atmospheres of other exoplanets, planets beyond our solar system, including ones that may host life. (With inputs from agencies)

Astronomers discover class of 'hycean' exoplanets that could prove fruitful in search for alien life

To search for evidence of extraterrestrial life by looking for advanced technology, a group of scientists will start a new international research project led by Harvard University.

Titled as the 'Galileo Project', it is being led by the Harvard astronomy professor Avi Loeb.

Loeb co-founded the project with Frank Laukien, CEO of Bruker Corporation, a Massachusetts-based manufacturer of scientific equipment.

In a statement issued by the team, they said, "We can only speculate whether ‘Oumuamua may be explained by never seen before natural explanations, or by stretching our imagination to ‘Oumuamua perhaps being an extraterrestrial technological object, similar to a very thin light-sail or communication dish, which fits the astronomical data rather well".

<a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/nasa-solves-40-year-old-mystery-of-jupiters-x-ray-auroras-400739">Also read |&nbsp;NASA solves 40-year-old mystery of Jupiter's X-Ray Auroras</a>

Rather than looking for electromagnetic signals, the Galileo Project will search for physical objects which are associated with extraterrestrial technological equipment, known as 'technosignatures'.

Laukien was quoted by The Guardian saying, "It is very important that we keep in mind that the Galileo Project is not for everything, and it is not for everyone". He added, "It has a defined scope, and it has limitations,” he added, referring to the project’s aim of only exploring known physics explanations rather than speculating on prior UAPs, alleged observations and informal reports".

“We want to clear the fog through a transparent and scientific analysis by assembling our own data, not data based on government-owned sensors, because most of that data is classified".

To search for evidence of extraterrestrial life by looking for advanced technology, a group of scientists will start a new international research project led by Harvard University.

To search for evidence of extraterrestrial life by looking for advanced technology, a group of scientists will start a new international research project led by Harvard University. Titled as the 'Galileo Project', it is being led by the Harvard astronomy professor Avi Loeb. Loeb co-founded the project with Frank Laukien, CEO of Bruker Corporation, a Massachusetts-based manufacturer of scientific equipment. In a statement issued by the team, they said, "We can only speculate whether ‘Oumuamua may be explained by never seen before natural explanations, or by stretching our imagination to ‘Oumuamua perhaps being an extraterrestrial technological object, similar to a very thin light-sail or communication dish, which fits the astronomical data rather well". Also read | NASA solves 40-year-old mystery of Jupiter's X-Ray Auroras Rather than looking for electromagnetic signals, the Galileo Project will search for physical objects which are associated with extraterrestrial technological equipment, known as 'technosignatures'. Laukien was quoted by The Guardian saying, "It is very important that we keep in mind that the Galileo Project is not for everything, and it is not for everyone". He added, "It has a defined scope, and it has limitations,” he added, referring to the project’s aim of only exploring known physics explanations rather than speculating on prior UAPs, alleged observations and informal reports". “We want to clear the fog through a transparent and scientific analysis by assembling our own data, not data based on government-owned sensors, because most of that data is classified".

Scientists to search for signs of extraterrestrial technology

Our powerful telescopes have been looking for life outside Earth, but have you ever wondered if other solar systems are 'looking back' at us, for life on our planet?

If so, how many of the stars outside our solar system could 'see' us?

Scientists may have the answer.&nbsp; 
 
<a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/aliens-on-1000-nearby-stars-could-see-us-new-study-suggests-337578">Also read | Aliens on 1000 nearby stars could see us, new study suggests</a> 
 
They have reported that 1,715 stars within 100 parsecs from the Sun are in the right position to have spotted life on a transiting Earth since early human civilisation about 5,000 years ago.

One parsec is 3.26 light years.

An additional 319 stars will enter this special vantage point in the next 5,000 years, according to a study by scientists&nbsp;at Cornell University, published in the journal Nature. 
 
<a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/scientists-recently-scanned-10-million-stars-for-alien-technology-what-did-they-find-326020">Also read: Scientists recently scanned 10 million stars for alien technology, what did they find?</a> 
 
Among these stars are seven known exoplanet hosts, including Ross-128, which saw Earth transit the Sun in the past, and Teegarden’s Star and Trappist-1, which will start to see it in 29 and 1,642 years, respectively, said the study.&nbsp; 
 
<a href="https://www.wionews.com/entertainment/strange-news-alert-miley-cyrus-demi-lovato-reveal-seeing-aliens-and-ufo-337403">Also read:&nbsp;Strange news alert! Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato reveal seeing aliens and UFO</a>

"We found that human-made radio waves have already swept over 75 of the closest stars on our list,' said Lisa Kaltenegger and Jackie Faherty, the authors of the study.

Our powerful telescopes have been looking for life outside Earth, but have you ever wondered if other solar systems are 'looking back' at us, for life on our planet?

Our powerful telescopes have been looking for life outside Earth, but have you ever wondered if other solar systems are 'looking back' at us, for life on our planet? If so, how many of the stars outside our solar system could 'see' us? Scientists may have the answer. Also read | Aliens on 1000 nearby stars could see us, new study suggests They have reported that 1,715 stars within 100 parsecs from the Sun are in the right position to have spotted life on a transiting Earth since early human civilisation about 5,000 years ago. One parsec is 3.26 light years. An additional 319 stars will enter this special vantage point in the next 5,000 years, according to a study by scientists at Cornell University, published in the journal Nature. Also read: Scientists recently scanned 10 million stars for alien technology, what did they find? Among these stars are seven known exoplanet hosts, including Ross-128, which saw Earth transit the Sun in the past, and Teegarden’s Star and Trappist-1, which will start to see it in 29 and 1,642 years, respectively, said the study. Also read: Strange news alert! Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato reveal seeing aliens and UFO "We found that human-made radio waves have already swept over 75 of the closest stars on our list,' said Lisa Kaltenegger and Jackie Faherty, the authors of the study.

Do you know how many stars may have 'seen' life on earth? Scientists have the answer

A new study has identified more than 1,000 nearby stars that are favourably positioned for spotting life on Earth. The team has identified 1,004 stars with Earth in their line of sight, which could contain habitable, Earth-like planets. 
 
<a href="https://www.wionews.com/entertainment/strange-news-alert-miley-cyrus-demi-lovato-reveal-seeing-aliens-and-ufo-337403">Also read:&nbsp;Strange news alert! Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato reveal seeing aliens and UFO</a> 
 
"If observers were out there searching [from planets orbiting these stars], they would be able to see signs of a biosphere in the atmosphere of our Pale Blue Dot,” study lead author Lisa Kaltenegger, an associate professor of astronomy at Cornell and director of the university's Carl Sagan Institute, said in a statement. 
 
<a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/scientists-recently-scanned-10-million-stars-for-alien-technology-what-did-they-find-326020">Also read: Scientists recently scanned 10 million stars for alien technology, what did they find?</a> 
 
"And we can even see some of the brightest of these stars in our night sky without binoculars or telescopes," Kaltenegger said.

These stars are all within 326 light-years of Earth. "The closest star in our list is at a distance of only 8.5 pc - about 28 light-years - from our Sun," the researchers said.

Due to several unexplained events, it has become very hard for the curious human brain to believe that we are the only living creatures in this wide, wide universe.&nbsp;

Most of us have tried to channel our inner Christopher Nolan to explain why aliens are very much legit, then there are some who are convinced that America is hiding aliens in Area 51.

There are around 100 billion to 300 billion stars in the Milky Way alone. The Australian astronomers studied just 10 million stars, the odds are still in favour of those looking for aliens.

(With inputs from agencies)

A new study has identified more than 1,000 nearby stars that are favourably positioned for spotting life on Earth. The team has identified 1,004 stars with Earth in their line of sight, which could contain habitable, Earth-like planets.

A new study has identified more than 1,000 nearby stars that are favourably positioned for spotting life on Earth. The team has identified 1,004 stars with Earth in their line of sight, which could contain habitable, Earth-like planets. Also read: Strange news alert! Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato reveal seeing aliens and UFO "If observers were out there searching [from planets orbiting these stars], they would be able to see signs of a biosphere in the atmosphere of our Pale Blue Dot,” study lead author Lisa Kaltenegger, an associate professor of astronomy at Cornell and director of the university's Carl Sagan Institute, said in a statement. Also read: Scientists recently scanned 10 million stars for alien technology, what did they find? "And we can even see some of the brightest of these stars in our night sky without binoculars or telescopes," Kaltenegger said. These stars are all within 326 light-years of Earth. "The closest star in our list is at a distance of only 8.5 pc - about 28 light-years - from our Sun," the researchers said. Due to several unexplained events, it has become very hard for the curious human brain to believe that we are the only living creatures in this wide, wide universe. Most of us have tried to channel our inner Christopher Nolan to explain why aliens are very much legit, then there are some who are convinced that America is hiding aliens in Area 51. There are around 100 billion to 300 billion stars in the Milky Way alone. The Australian astronomers studied just 10 million stars, the odds are still in favour of those looking for aliens. (With inputs from agencies)

Aliens on 1000 nearby stars could see us, new study suggests

Looks like we might be getting closer to discovering life on mars. Two years ago, scientists discovered a large reservoir under Mars icy surface. Now, they have found three such more lakes!

On Monday, a paper in Nature Astronomy claimed that researchers have found three lakes burrowed under the red planet’s surface, in addition to the saltwater lake discovered earlier. Radar data from the European Space Agency (ESA) was used to discover the water bodies.

Also read:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/nasa-plans-mission-to-moon-by-2024-to-cost-28-billion-329344" hreflang="en">NASA plans mission to moon by 2024, to cost $28 billion</a>

The report quoted one of the paper’s authors - Elena Pettinelli from the University Rome, who called the discovery mechanism ‘complex’ - "We identified the same body of water, but we also found three other bodies of water around the main one...It's a complex system."

The lakes are spread across 75,000 square kilometres. The largest lake, which lies in the centre of all three is 30 kilometres long, while the three smaller lakes are a “few kilometres wide”.

This discovery could lay the groundwork for finding more life-sustaining characteristics on our neighbour, which has been under the watchful eye of the top brass, given the severity of climate change, which experts fear is nearing a point of no return for Earth.

Scientists believe that such lakes could point to existence of life on Mars!

The detection of three lakes is an extrapolation of the previous findings in the previous region which pointed to what’s being dubbed as the central lake. It was found in 2018, making the first liquid water body ever detected on Mars, which could also mean there is potential scope of life on the planet.

Also read:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.wionews.com/science/new-images-of-jupiter-show-new-storm-moving-at-350-mph-328571" hreflang="en">New images of Jupiter show new storm moving at 350 mph</a>

The report, however added that the “finding was based on just 29 observations made from 2012 to 2015." As opposed to that, the new study took into account broader data signifiers - taking into account 134 observations between 2012 and 2019.

Scientists also believe that the salt content in any Martian lake will be over the roof! According to Pettinelli, “from a thermal point of view it has to be salty."

Water bodies with salt content five times over seawater can sustain life. But if the salt content is 20 times over Earth seawater levels, life cannot exist in such water bodies, the report added, while quoting John Priscu, an environmental scientist from the Montana State University.

Looks like we might be getting closer to discovering life on mars. Two years ago, scientists discovered a large reservoir under Mars icy surface. Now, they have found three such more lakes!

Looks like we might be getting closer to discovering life on mars. Two years ago, scientists discovered a large reservoir under Mars icy surface. Now, they have found three such more lakes! On Monday, a paper in Nature Astronomy claimed that researchers have found three lakes burrowed under the red planet’s surface, in addition to the saltwater lake discovered earlier. Radar data from the European Space Agency (ESA) was used to discover the water bodies. Also read: NASA plans mission to moon by 2024, to cost $28 billion The report quoted one of the paper’s authors - Elena Pettinelli from the University Rome, who called the discovery mechanism ‘complex’ - "We identified the same body of water, but we also found three other bodies of water around the main one...It's a complex system." The lakes are spread across 75,000 square kilometres. The largest lake, which lies in the centre of all three is 30 kilometres long, while the three smaller lakes are a “few kilometres wide”. This discovery could lay the groundwork for finding more life-sustaining characteristics on our neighbour, which has been under the watchful eye of the top brass, given the severity of climate change, which experts fear is nearing a point of no return for Earth. Scientists believe that such lakes could point to existence of life on Mars! The detection of three lakes is an extrapolation of the previous findings in the previous region which pointed to what’s being dubbed as the central lake. It was found in 2018, making the first liquid water body ever detected on Mars, which could also mean there is potential scope of life on the planet. Also read: New images of Jupiter show new storm moving at 350 mph The report, however added that the “finding was based on just 29 observations made from 2012 to 2015." As opposed to that, the new study took into account broader data signifiers - taking into account 134 observations between 2012 and 2019. Scientists also believe that the salt content in any Martian lake will be over the roof! According to Pettinelli, “from a thermal point of view it has to be salty." Water bodies with salt content five times over seawater can sustain life. But if the salt content is 20 times over Earth seawater levels, life cannot exist in such water bodies, the report added, while quoting John Priscu, an environmental scientist from the Montana State University.

Hints of life on Mars? Scientists find three lakes buried under the red planet's surface!

Researchers have discovered a unique organism that lives its life completely free of oxygen dependency.

The tiny parasite lives in salmon tissue and evolves in such a manner that it doesn't need oxygen to produce energy.

The findings of the study were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) this week.

Also read: <a href="https://www.wionews.com/world/global-scientists-team-to-hunt-for-loch-ness-monster-139188/amp">Global scientists team to hunt for Loch Ness monster</a>

"In our work, we have shown that there is a multicellular animal that does not have the genetic toolkit to use oxygen," said Stephen Atkinson, co-author of the paper and a senior research associate at Oregon State University's Department of Microbiology.

In the groundbreaking paper on less than 10-celled Henneguya salminicola researchers stated that the jellyfish-like parasite lives in low-oxygen environments and does not have a mitochondrial genome. Therefore, it doesn't breathe.

It is the first multi-cellular organism known to have this absence.&nbsp;

Also see: <a href="https://www.wionews.com/photos/warming-oceans-bleach-coral-reefs-10">Warming oceans bleach coral reefs</a>

The Henneguya salminicola is a myxozoan cnidarian, a type of animal-related to jellyfish and coral. It lives inside salmon and "steals ready-made nutrients" from it, Atkinson said, instead of consuming oxygen directly.

The team's findings, he said, expand the definition of what an "animal" can be.

The researchers are not sure what the parasite relies on instead of oxygen, but Atkinson said he assumes it absorbs molecules from its host that have already produced energy.

According to scientists, this discovery will not only change our understanding of how life can work on Earth but it could also have implications for the search for extra-terrestrial life.

Researchers have discovered a unique organism that lives its life completely free of oxygen dependency. The tiny parasite lives in salmon tissue and evolves in such a manner that it doesn't need oxygen to produce energy.

Researchers have discovered a unique organism that lives its life completely free of oxygen dependency. The tiny parasite lives in salmon tissue and evolves in such a manner that it doesn't need oxygen to produce energy. The findings of the study were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) this week. Also read: Global scientists team to hunt for Loch Ness monster "In our work, we have shown that there is a multicellular animal that does not have the genetic toolkit to use oxygen," said Stephen Atkinson, co-author of the paper and a senior research associate at Oregon State University's Department of Microbiology. In the groundbreaking paper on less than 10-celled Henneguya salminicola researchers stated that the jellyfish-like parasite lives in low-oxygen environments and does not have a mitochondrial genome. Therefore, it doesn't breathe. It is the first multi-cellular organism known to have this absence. Also see: Warming oceans bleach coral reefs The Henneguya salminicola is a myxozoan cnidarian, a type of animal-related to jellyfish and coral. It lives inside salmon and "steals ready-made nutrients" from it, Atkinson said, instead of consuming oxygen directly. The team's findings, he said, expand the definition of what an "animal" can be. The researchers are not sure what the parasite relies on instead of oxygen, but Atkinson said he assumes it absorbs molecules from its host that have already produced energy. According to scientists, this discovery will not only change our understanding of how life can work on Earth but it could also have implications for the search for extra-terrestrial life.

Scientists discover first organism that does not need oxygen to live

Aliens could be everywhere. There are at least 100 billion planets in our galaxy alone, and at least 20 per cent of them could be habitable. Even if a tiny fraction of those planets &ndash; less than one percent of one percent &ndash; evolved life, there would still be tens of thousands of planets with aliens in our vicinity. But if we want to figure out where to start looking for these neighbours, we need to understand what they might be like and where they might thrive.

Ultimately, we want to understand as much as possible about an extraterrestrial species before we encounter it. And yet, making predictions about aliens is hard. The reason is simple: we have only one example &ndash; life on Earth &ndash; to extrapolate from. Just because eyes and limbs have evolved many times on Earth doesn&rsquo;t mean they&rsquo;ll appear even once elsewhere. Just because we are made of carbon and coded by DNA doesn&rsquo;t mean aliens will be &ndash; they could be silicon-based and coded by &ldquo;XNA&rdquo;.

However, as my colleagues and I argue in our new study, published in the International Journal of Astrobiology, there is another approach to making predictions about aliens that get around this problem. That is to use evolutionary theory as a guiding principle. The theory of natural selection allows us to make predictions that don&rsquo;t depend on the details of Earth and so will hold even for eyeless, nitrogen-breathing aliens.

Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection long before we knew what DNA was, how mutations appeared, or even how traits were passed on. It is remarkably simple and requires just a few ingredients to work: variation (some giraffes have longer necks than others), the heritability of that variation (long-necked giraffes have long-necked babies) and differential success linked to the variation (long-necked giraffes eat more leaves and have more babies).

Darwin&rsquo;s aliens

In our paper, we use evolutionary theory to make a number of predictions about aliens. First, we argue that aliens will undergo natural selection. This is something often either taken for granted or assumed to be an unknown. We show that there are firm theoretical grounds for believing that aliens will undergo (or have undergone) natural selection.

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Illustration of levels of complexity. A) A simple replicating molecule. B) Cell-like entity. C) An alien. (Others)
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This is because &ldquo;apparent design&rdquo; is what sets life apart from non-life &ndash; such as a single-celled organism from inert rocks. Living things have many intricate parts fine-tuned for the common purpose of replicating the organism. The only way to achieve this apparent design, or adaptedness, the only way to get a life, is through natural selection.

So as aliens are highly likely to undergo natural selection, we can make some predictions about what they will be like. In particular, our predictions are about complex aliens. By complexity, we mean anything more complex than, say, a virus.

Even a bacterial cell has intricate parts that work together to achieve goals, like moving and eating. In other words, most &ldquo;aliens&rdquo; we would be interested in finding, or even able to find, are complex. That&rsquo;s because the only things so simple that they could have arisen without natural selection would be molecules, which are both physically hard to detect and hard to distinguish from the background of inert molecules. They&rsquo;d also be transient &ndash; without natural selection making them fitter they&rsquo;d disappear. Even if we did find them, we probably wouldn&rsquo;t even classify them as life.

Complexity on Earth has arisen through a handful of something called &ldquo;major transitions in individuality&rdquo;. These occur when independent organisms come together to form a new type of individual. On Earth, genes came together to form genomes, single-celled organisms formed multi-cellular organisms, like us. In some rare cases, multi-cellular organisms, like insects, have formed societies that act as &ldquo;superorganisms&rdquo; themselves. These events are rare, and require extreme evolutionary conditions to occur.

We argue that complex aliens will, too, have undergone major transitions, as this is likely the only way to advance beyond a simple replicating molecule. Because the conditions for major transitions to occur are rare, and because they are quite well understood from an evolutionary perspective, this allows us to say something about the makeup of aliens.

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Illustration of a complex alien that comprises a hierarchy of entities, where each lower level collection of entities has aligned evolutionary interests. (Others)
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In particular, just as you and I are made up of cells which are made up of nuclei and mitochondria (the breathing engine of the cell) which are made up of genes, aliens will be a similar nested hierarchy of units. Aliens might not be made of &ldquo;cells&rdquo; as we think of them, but they will be made up of parts which were once free-living, and those parts, in turn, will be too &ndash; all the way down to the aliens&rsquo; hereditary material (whatever it is). Our parts have mechanisms in place that keep all the parts working together to make an organism.

For example, our cells all start as one single cell (the &ldquo;zygote&rdquo;), and this means all our cells are clones, which is why they cooperate to make us. Aliens will have similar ways of enforcing cooperation between their internal parts, at each level of units.

Aliens may not have two legs or any legs at all, but their structure, from an evolutionary standpoint, will be much more familiar than we might have thought. By familiar, I don&rsquo;t mean superficially familiar. They may look, on the surface, wildly different from anything on Earth. But they will be similar on a more fundamental level: their bodies will be constructed in the same way (formerly free-living parts within formerly free-living parts), and they will have undergone a similar evolutionary history (independent organisms cooperating to form new, higher level organisms).

There is much more work to be done to understand what aliens might be like and where we might find them. And the tantalising question &ndash; &ldquo;Are we alone?&rdquo; &ndash; remains unanswered. But, as we have shown, if we&rsquo;re not alone, perhaps we understand more about the makeup of our neighbours than science fiction would have us believe.

This article was originally published on <a href="http://theconversation.com" rel="nofollow" target="blank">The Conversation</a>. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-evolutionary-theory-can-teach-us-about-the-appearance-of-aliens-86719" rel="nofollow" target="blank">original article</a>.

Image Credit: Shutterstock and Helen S. Cooper

There is much more work to be done to understand what aliens might be like and where we might find them

Aliens could be everywhere. There are at least 100 billion planets in our galaxy alone, and at least 20 per cent of them could be habitable. Even if a tiny fraction of those planets – less than one percent of one percent – evolved life, there would still be tens of thousands of planets with aliens in our vicinity. But if we want to figure out where to start looking for these neighbours, we need to understand what they might be like and where they might thrive. Ultimately, we want to understand as much as possible about an extraterrestrial species before we encounter it. And yet, making predictions about aliens is hard. The reason is simple: we have only one example – life on Earth – to extrapolate from. Just because eyes and limbs have evolved many times on Earth doesn’t mean they’ll appear even once elsewhere. Just because we are made of carbon and coded by DNA doesn’t mean aliens will be – they could be silicon-based and coded by “XNA”. However, as my colleagues and I argue in our new study, published in the International Journal of Astrobiology, there is another approach to making predictions about aliens that get around this problem. That is to use evolutionary theory as a guiding principle. The theory of natural selection allows us to make predictions that don’t depend on the details of Earth and so will hold even for eyeless, nitrogen-breathing aliens. Darwin formulated his theory of natural selection long before we knew what DNA was, how mutations appeared, or even how traits were passed on. It is remarkably simple and requires just a few ingredients to work: variation (some giraffes have longer necks than others), the heritability of that variation (long-necked giraffes have long-necked babies) and differential success linked to the variation (long-necked giraffes eat more leaves and have more babies). Darwin’s aliens In our paper, we use evolutionary theory to make a number of predictions about aliens. First, we argue that aliens will undergo natural selection. This is something often either taken for granted or assumed to be an unknown. We show that there are firm theoretical grounds for believing that aliens will undergo (or have undergone) natural selection. Illustration of levels of complexity. A) A simple replicating molecule. B) Cell-like entity. C) An alien. (Others) × This is because “apparent design” is what sets life apart from non-life – such as a single-celled organism from inert rocks. Living things have many intricate parts fine-tuned for the common purpose of replicating the organism. The only way to achieve this apparent design, or adaptedness, the only way to get a life, is through natural selection. So as aliens are highly likely to undergo natural selection, we can make some predictions about what they will be like. In particular, our predictions are about complex aliens. By complexity, we mean anything more complex than, say, a virus. Even a bacterial cell has intricate parts that work together to achieve goals, like moving and eating. In other words, most “aliens” we would be interested in finding, or even able to find, are complex. That’s because the only things so simple that they could have arisen without natural selection would be molecules, which are both physically hard to detect and hard to distinguish from the background of inert molecules. They’d also be transient – without natural selection making them fitter they’d disappear. Even if we did find them, we probably wouldn’t even classify them as life. Complexity on Earth has arisen through a handful of something called “major transitions in individuality”. These occur when independent organisms come together to form a new type of individual. On Earth, genes came together to form genomes, single-celled organisms formed multi-cellular organisms, like us. In some rare cases, multi-cellular organisms, like insects, have formed societies that act as “superorganisms” themselves. These events are rare, and require extreme evolutionary conditions to occur. We argue that complex aliens will, too, have undergone major transitions, as this is likely the only way to advance beyond a simple replicating molecule. Because the conditions for major transitions to occur are rare, and because they are quite well understood from an evolutionary perspective, this allows us to say something about the makeup of aliens. Illustration of a complex alien that comprises a hierarchy of entities, where each lower level collection of entities has aligned evolutionary interests. (Others) × In particular, just as you and I are made up of cells which are made up of nuclei and mitochondria (the breathing engine of the cell) which are made up of genes, aliens will be a similar nested hierarchy of units. Aliens might not be made of “cells” as we think of them, but they will be made up of parts which were once free-living, and those parts, in turn, will be too – all the way down to the aliens’ hereditary material (whatever it is). Our parts have mechanisms in place that keep all the parts working together to make an organism. For example, our cells all start as one single cell (the “zygote”), and this means all our cells are clones, which is why they cooperate to make us. Aliens will have similar ways of enforcing cooperation between their internal parts, at each level of units. Aliens may not have two legs or any legs at all, but their structure, from an evolutionary standpoint, will be much more familiar than we might have thought. By familiar, I don’t mean superficially familiar. They may look, on the surface, wildly different from anything on Earth. But they will be similar on a more fundamental level: their bodies will be constructed in the same way (formerly free-living parts within formerly free-living parts), and they will have undergone a similar evolutionary history (independent organisms cooperating to form new, higher level organisms). There is much more work to be done to understand what aliens might be like and where we might find them. And the tantalising question – “Are we alone?” – remains unanswered. But, as we have shown, if we’re not alone, perhaps we understand more about the makeup of our neighbours than science fiction would have us believe. This article was originally published on The Conversation. Read the original article. Image Credit: Shutterstock and Helen S. Cooper

What evolutionary theory can teach us about the appearance of aliens

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